Utilitarianism (Theory)

• Utility


  Usefulness, specific goal (or goals)
• Hedonistic utilitarianism


  The ultimate goal of all actions is gaining pleasure and avoiding pain
• Psychological hedonism


  • A descriptive theory (not a moral one) of human motivation that claims the individual's potential pleasure and avoidance of pain are the sole aims of the individual's action
• Classic (or hedonistic) utilitarianism


  • A moral theory that claims a right action is one that maximises general happiness/minimises pain (not just the individual's)
• Bentham: 'Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects are fastened to their throne.'
• Act utilitarianism


  The moral value of any act is calculated by considering its consequences (which makes it a consequentialist ethical theory). To calculate the moral worth, add up all the pleasure the act brings and subtract all the pain/suffering. An action is good if it brings about more pleasure than pain
• Rule utilitarianism


  You should follow general rules (or what Mill calls secondary principles) such as 'don't kill' and 'don't steal'. An act is good if it follows a suitable rule and a rule is good if it is one that will increase happiness
• Rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism as most basic rules are too general and have legitimate exceptions
• Qualitative hedonistic utilitarianism (John Stuart Mill)


  Pleasures of the mind are superior to physical pleasures as they are likely to last longer and so give more pleasure. Some pleasures are inherently better than others
• Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures means that some pleasures can be 'better' even if they give less pleasure, which seems to go against the core of hedonistic utilitarianism
• Mill did not see happiness just as a question of pleasure, but also reflected a broader, developmental view of human happiness
• Mill's 'proof' of the greatest happiness principle has been criticised for equivocation and the fallacy of composition
• Preference utilitarianism


  An action should be judged by how it conforms to the preferences of all those affected by the action (and its consequences). A good act is one which maximises the satisfaction of the preferences of all those involved
• Preference utilitarianism provides a solution to the counterintuitive focus on pleasure in classic utilitarianism, as it recognises that people's preferences to be pain-free are often much stronger than their preferences for pleasure
• Preference utilitarianism has been criticised for the issues of weighing up different preferences and dealing with 'bad' preferences
• The idea that pleasure is the ultimate end of our actions has been criticised as painting an unpleasant view of the human condition, and some religious believers have claimed that seeking pleasure is wrong
• Nozick's 'pleasure machine' thought experiment suggests that people may not just seek pleasure, but specific states of affairs in the real world
• People often want specific states of affairs in the world, not just sensations in their heads
• Many would refuse the machine, as what they seek are things in a real world, not sensations
• People have died fighting against injustices, to gain the right to vote etc.
• Very few people would put their life on the line just for more 'pleasure'
• Fairness and individual liberty/rights


  Act utilitarianism can lead to some counter-intuitive moral judgements
• Rule utilitarianism


  Can avoid the odd conclusions of act utilitarianism by arguing that following rules/ideals such as the right to life, liberty and freedom of speech is the best way to maximise happiness
• People have undergone great hardships, including sacrificing their own lives in the name of liberty, democracy and justice
• Mill's harm principle


  The only reason governments and other individuals should interfere in our lives is to prevent us causing harm to others
• Mill's account of liberty has been hugely influential
• Average or total happiness

  Should governments aim for average or total happiness?
• Distribution of happiness


  According to utilitarianism, everyone's happiness counts equally, but most actions only affect some people
• Sentience


  The basis for moral equality, our common ability to feel pain and pleasure
• Orwell's moment of realisation in the Spanish Civil War, where he was unable to shoot a man holding up his trousers
• Act utilitarianism vs rule utilitarianism


  Act utilitarianism may say to save the scientist, but rule utilitarianism can argue that the moral duty to family is worth pursuing as an end in itself
• Requiring everyone to be perfectly impartial would lower general happiness, as having family and friends is an integral part of our happiness
• Impartiality of governments


  There are debates around how impartial governments should be, both towards their own citizens and the broader world
• Utilitarianism doesn't allow you to draw a line in the sand and say, 'I will not do that'
• Intentions vs consequences


  Utilitarianism focuses solely on the consequences of an act, ignoring the intentions, which can feel counterintuitive
• Utilitarians use the concepts of blame and praise to acknowledge the intention of the agent, even if the moral worth of the action is the same