RPI all

• Research


  A search for knowledge. A movement from known to unknown. A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
• Purposes of research


  • To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
  • To portray accurately the characteristic of a particular individual, situation or a group
  • To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else
  • To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables
• Research question


  Something you want to know about your discipline, or about a specific area within your discipline. It is clear, precisely stated, open-ended, and ends with a question mark.
• Frameworks for developing research questions

  • BeHEMoTh
  • CoCoPop
  • ECLIPSE
  • PFO
  • PECO (PECOT, PECODR, PEO)
  • PerSPECTiF
  • PESICO
  • PICO (PIO, PICOC, PICOS, PICOT, PICOTS, PICOTT)
  • PIFT
  • PIPOH (PIPOS)
  • SPICE
  • SPIDER
• Synthesis matrix


  A table that can be used to organize research. It provides a visual representation of main ideas found in the literature and shows where there is overlap in ideas between authors.
• A synthesis matrix helps to integrate all of the different resources together, which will facilitate the synthesis of information on a specific topic.
• When using a search engine, you should use 1 major and 1 minor database (e.g. Pubmed + Scholar / WOS / SCOPUS).
• The PRISMA S checklist should be used when conducting a systematic review.
• Citation


  A way of giving credit for someone's thinking, writing or research. You mark the material when you use it (a citation) and give the full identification at the end (a reference).
• In academic writing you are obliged to attribute every piece of material you use to its author.
• When to cite

  • Direct quotes
  • Statistics/Studies
  • Ideas/Theories
  • Facts
  • Interpretations / figures
  • Paraphrases
• Citation manager tools like Zotero, Mendeley, and EndNote can be used to manage references.
• Research plan


  A document that organizes the researcher's ideas in order and helps to identify flaws and inadequacies. It provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have to be collected as a preliminary step.
• Contents of a research plan


  • Clearly stated research objective
  • Explicitly stated research problem
  • Operational definitions of major concepts
  • Description of methods/approaches to be used
  • Procedure for quantifying data
  • Sampling plan
  • Statistical and other data processing methods
  • Results of pilot test
  • Time and cost budgets
• Research design


  The arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
• Important features of research design


  • Specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem
  • Specifies the approach to be used for gathering and analysing the data
  • Includes time and cost budgets
• Categories of research


  • Descriptive
  • Exploratory
  • Experimental
• Case study

  An in-depth description of an individual condition or response to treatment. Can also focus on a group/institution/social unit.
• Longitudinal study


  Researcher follows a cohort of subjects over time and performs repeated measurements at prescribed intervals.
• Cross-sectional study


  Researcher examines the characteristics of a broad sample at one time, rather than follow over years.
• Normative research


  Describes typical or standard values for characteristics of a given population, usually expressed as an average or mean within a range.
• Cohort study


  Prospective study comparing the effect of an intervention against a control.
• Case-control study


  Retrospective study that identifies cases with the outcome and controls without the outcome, and looks back to identify the presence or absence of risk factors.
• Randomized controlled trial (RCT)


  Considered the "gold standard" of clinical research. A prospective study comparing the effect of an intervention against a control, with random assignment to treatment or control.
• Quasi-experimental research shares similarities with RCTs but lacks the element of random assignment to treatment or control.
• Case reports are detailed reports of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient.
• Reasons for writing a case report

  • Unexpected association between diseases or symptoms
  • Unexpected event in the course of observing or treating a patient
  • Findings that shed new light on the possible pathogenesis of a disease or an adverse effect
  • Unique or rare features of a disease
  • Unique therapeutic approaches
  • Variation of anatomical structures
• Case Report Writing


  A detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient
• Reasons for case reports

  • An unexpected association between diseases or symptoms
  • An unexpected event in the course observing or treating a patient
  • Findings that shed new light on the possible pathogenesis of a disease or an adverse effect
  • Unique or rare features of a disease
  • Unique therapeutic approaches
  • Variation of anatomical structures
• Patient Information


  • De-identified patient specific information
  • Primary concerns and symptoms of the patient
  • Medical, family, and psychosocial history including relevant genetic information
  • Relevant past interventions and their outcomes
• Clinical Findings


  Describe significant physical examination and important clinical findings
• Timeline


  Historical and current information from this episode of care organized as a timeline (figure or table)
• Diagnostic Assessment


  • Diagnostic methods (PE, laboratory testing, imaging, surveys)
  • Diagnostic challenges
  • Diagnosis (including other diagnoses considered)
  • Prognostic characteristics when applicable
• Therapeutic Intervention


  • Types of therapeutic intervention (pharmacologic, surgical, preventive)
  • Administration of therapeutic intervention (dosage, strength, duration)
  • Changes in therapeutic interventions with explanations
• Follow-up and Outcomes


  • Clinician- and patient-assessed outcomes if available
  • Important follow-up diagnostic and other test results
  • Intervention adherence and tolerability (How was this assessed?)
  • Adverse and unanticipated events
• Clinical Image


  Images of medical conditions, common or uncommon, usually published in medical journals. This section also accommodates images of surprising, innovative or uncommon public health situations.
• Clinical Image Requirements


  • 2-4 Authors
  • 250 Words
  • 1-2 Figures with legends
• Narrative reviews


  Usually written by experts in the field, use informal and subjective methods to collect and interpret information, usually narrative summaries of the evidence
• Systematic review


  A review of the evidence on a clearly formulated question that uses systematic and explicit methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant primary research, and to extract and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review
• Questions of interest


  • Effectiveness: Does the intervention work/not work? Who does it work/not work for?
  • Other important questions: How does the intervention work? Is the intervention appropriate? Is the intervention feasible? Is the intervention and comparison relevant?