Attachments

• Research into caregiver-infant interactions socially sensitive. Can imply that mothers who return to work shortly after child is born restricts the opportunities to form attachments. -Can cause distress if mothers in research studies feel that they are not forming attachments. +Shows importance of sensitive, responsive parenting and has led to establishing advice and good practice for new parents that may contribute to children developing secure relationships throughout their lives.
• Much of the research uses well controlled procedures. E.g. Caregiver-infant interactions are often filmed from multiple angles or using eye-tracking technology. Also babies don't know they're being observed so cannot display demand characteristics.
• Difficult to interpret observations of infants. Researchers cannot be sure what is taking place from the infant's perspective. Gestures deliberate or coincidence? Weakness - cannot be certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have any special meaning which calls into question the validity of the theories of care-giver interactions.
• Attrition bias


  Relates to longitudinal studies. Is the selective dropout of some ppl who systematically differ from those who remain in the study. Results in skewered results.
• Field (1978) found that fathers can be equally nurturing attachment figures. The key to attachment relationships are the level of responsiveness, not gender.
• MacCallum and Golombok (2004) have found that children growing up in single/ same sex parent families do not develop any differently from those in 2 parent heterosexual families. Father's may be less important due to biological differences - do not produce the hormones, oestrogen/ oxytocin, to make them sufficiently nurturing to form strong attachments.
• Grossman (2007) longitudinal study of 44 families in Germany looking at both parent's behaviour + how it relates to quality of children's attachment in their teens. Findings - Quality of infant attachment with mothers but not fathers related to children's attachment in adolescence, suggesting father's early attachment behaviour is less important. Research also suggested that fathers have different role in child development, more to do with play rather than nurture. Father's play quality with child 2-6yrs was significantly related to child emotional security at ages 10-16.
• Developed the 'still experiment'. Gives insight into how a parent's reactions can affect the emotional development of a baby, importance of attachment and what happens when connections do not develop. Mother in front of baby initially interacting but then stops and shows no response or emotion. Baby starts to try to get her attention and then has more negative reactions. Implications on long term effect on children's behaviour with parent's that do not interact.
• Observed 30 mothers and infants and assessed degree of synchrony. Researchers also assessed quality of mother-infant attachment. Found high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality infant-mother attachment. (Quality of attachment measured using Ainsworth's strange situation protocol. Interactional synchrony measured using multiple behavioural categories, trained observers and checked for interrater reliability.)
• Found infants 2-3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures. Study conducted using adult model who displayed 1 of 3 facial expressions/ hand gestures. Following display, child's expression was filmed. Found was association between infant behaviour and adult model behaviour. Infant copied adult.
• Interactional synchrony


  When 2 ppl interact and mirror what the other one is doing, facial expression/ body movement. Includes imitating emotions/behaviours. 2 ppl said to be synchronised when they carry out same actions simultaneously.
• Reciprocity


  From around 3 months, interaction between caregiver and infant becomes increasingly frequent and reciprocal. Involves: close attention to each others verbal signals and facial expression. Each person responding to the other and eliciting a response. (turn taking) Each partner responds to the others' movement.
• Types of caregiver-infant interactions


  • Reciprocity
  • Interactional synchrony
• 3 types of attachment behaviours


  • Proximity seeking - staying physically close to attachment figure
  • Separation anxiety - being upset when attachment figure leaves
  • Secure base behaviour - regularly returning to attachment figure following exploration
• Attachments


  Short term = survival. Long term = future relationships. Believed that this relationship acts as template for later relationships.
• Importance of attachments


  Human babies altricial (born at relatively early stage of development and largely helpless). Human babies need to form bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them.
• Attachment


  An emotional bond between 2 ppl in which each seeks closeness and feels more secure when in presence of the attachment figure.