MEMORY

• Research into coding (STM + LTM)


  Coding = format that information is stored as in our memory

  Baddeley gave pps

  *acoustically similar or dissimilar words

  *semantically similar or dissimilar words

  Recalled immediately found acoustically similar words harder to recall=STM acoustic

  Recalled 20 minutes later found

  semantically similar words harder to recall=LTM semantic
• Research into capacity (STM)

  Capacity = amount of information that can be stored in each memory

  store

  Jacobs -read out

  increasing numbers of digits and asked pps to recall them until they couldnt remember correctly. The mean digit span was 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters

  Miller- found that

  the capacity is around 7+/-2 items but can be increased

  through chunking
• Research into duration (LTM)


  Duration=length on time info can be held in memory

  Bahrick et al

  Pps american aged 17-74

  *recognition test=50 photos from pps highschool yearbook

  *Free recall test=pps listed names from class

  Found pps tested 48 yrs after=70% accurate in recognition test
• MSM


  Proposed by atkinson and shiffrin

  suggested memory made up of sensory register, STM and LTM

  
• MSM: sensory register


  stimulus from environment pass to SR

  has high capacity

  duration very brief (less than half a second)

  coding -senses(iconic -visual, echoic -sound)

  pass to STM by attention
• MSM: STM


  Limited capacity 7+/-2

  limited duration 18-30 secs

  coding=acoustic

  keep in STM by maintenance rehearsal

  pass to LTM by prolonged rehearsal
• MSM: LTM


  Permanent memory store

  Recall from LTM have to transfer to STM by retrieval

  unlimited capacity

  duration=lifetime

  coding=semantic
• Types of long term memory

  Tulving realised msm view of LTM was too simplistic and so proposed that there are 3 types
• Types of LTM: Episodic


  Type of explicit memory

  which includes memories of personal experiences

  Involve people,places,emotions

  Time-stamped

  Make a

  conscious(declarative) effort to recall these

  Associated

  with the hippocampus
• Types of LTM: Semantic


  Type of explicit memory

  which includes memory of facts,meaning,knowledge

  start as episodic memories but progressively lose their association with particular events and not time-stamped = only the knowledge remains

  Associated with the temporal

  lobe.
• Types of LTM: Procedural


  Type of implicit memory which includes memory of how to perform certain tasks,

  actions or skills

  Recall unconsciously(non-declarative)

  Associated with the cerebellum and motor cortex
• WMM:Baddeley and Hitch


  put forward a multi‐component

  system,

  explanation of STM
• WMM:Central executive


  Controls attention and directs information to the two

  slave systems, the phonological loop and visuo‐spatial sketchpad.

  Limited capacity
• WMM: phonological loop


  Limited capacity

  Deals with auditory info

  *phonological store-(inner ear)temporary storage space for coding acoustic information,

  *articulatory process-(inner voice)allows maintenance rehearsal of items in PS
• WMM: visuo-spatial sketchpad


  limited capacity

  stores visual/spatial info

  *visual cashe -stores visual data

  *inner scribe -records arrangement of objects in visual field
• WMM:Episodic buffer


  Limited capacity binds and integrates information from all of the components and passes the

  information to LTM

  codes both visual and acoustic information
• Interference: Proactive


  Older memory disrupts newer memory
• Interference theory


  Forgetting is due to information in LTM becoming confused with or disrupted by other information during coding, leading to inaccurate recall
• Interference: Retroactive


  Newer memory disrupts older memory
• Interference: greater when memories are similar


  Because:

  in proactive interference stored info makes new info difficult to store

  in retroactive interference new info overwrites older memories which are similar
• Interference: McGeoch and McDonald -effects of similarity


  experiment, participants were given a list of words to learn

  Once learnt, then given another lists to learn,

  which varied in terms of its similarity to the original.

  Found similar material had worst recall-given different material=recall higher

  shows interference strongest when memory similar
• Retrieval failure:Encoding specificity principle


  Tulving suggested that cues help retrieval if the same cue is present at encoding and retrieval

  Aid recall=Environmental cues include room in which you learn information, and mental cues include your

  emotional state.
• Retrieval failure:absence of cues


  info initially placed in memory is associated cues stored at same time

  If no cues available at recall=cant access memory
• Retrieval failure:state-dependent forgetting


  retrieval dependent on internal cues/state of mind e.g: being drunk
• Retrieval failure:state-dependent forgetting carter and cassaday


  Gave anti‐histamine drugs to pps - make them drowsy=creates internal physiological state

  Had to learn list of words and then recall

  *c1-learn on drug,recall when on it

  *c2-learn on drug,recall when not on it

  *c3-dont learn on drug,recall when on it

  *c4-dont learn on drug,recall when not on it

  Found when learning + recalling state matched memory improved - when state of pps different recall was significantly poorer.

  When emotional cues that are present at time of encoding are missing at recall state‐dependent forgetting occurs
• Retrieval failure:context-dependent forgetting


  retrieval dependent on external/environmental cue e.g: the weather
• Retrieval failure:context-dependent forgetting Godden and Baddeley


  Investigate the effect of contextual cues on recall which took place on land or underwater

  g1-learn on land, recall on land

  g2-learn on land recall underwater

  g3-learn underwater,recall on land

  g4-learn underwater,recall underwater

  Found-The words learned underwater were better recalled underwater and words learned on land were

  better recalled on land.

  not have same external cues during learning and recalling=retrieval failure due to lack of cues

  reasonable to conclude that the environmental cues (context) improve recall.
• Misleading information: Leading questions


  wording of question influences answer given, affects EW memory by interfering with original memory- distort accuracy
• Misleading information: Leading questions Loftus and Palmer


  45 students watched clip of car accidents and asked specific questions about speed

  used 5 verbs:"How fast were they cards going when they smashed/ collided/ bumped/ hit/ contacted

  Found contacted=mean speed of 31.8mph

  smashed=40.5

  Shows leading questions causes biased EW recall, affecting accuracy
• Misleading information: Post-event discussion

  (memory contamination)Co-witnesses discuss a crime, mixes information from other witnesses with own memories

  (memory conformity)witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or believe others are right
• Misleading information: Post-event discussion Gabbert el al


  paired pps watched vid of same crime some see some elements some dont

  Discussed what seen and completed test of recall

  Found 71% mistakenly recalled aspects they had picked up in post-event discussion

  Control group=no discussion=no errors

  Shows issue of post‐event discussion and the powerful effect this can have

  on the accuracy of EWT
• Anxiety : Johnson and scott


  Pps sat in waiting room believing they was going to take part in a lab study

  Pps heard agruing in next room

  Independent groups design as pps exposed to 2 conditions

  low anxiety=walked past the pps holding a pen, with his hands covered in grease.

  high anxiety=heard sound of breaking glass and saw individual holding a bloodied paper knife

  Then asked to identify man from 50 photos

  Found low-anxiety identify 49% high-anxiety 33%

  Tunnel theory suggests witness more likely to focus their attention on the weapon(weapon focus) as is source of anxiety
• Anxiety :contradicting yerkes and dodson


  Inverted u theory

  argue that the relationship between performance and stress is curvilinear rather than linear

  performance will increase with stress but only up to a certain point where it decreases drastically
• Cognitive interview

  Geisleman et al developed as a response to criticisms of police interviews

  4 principles that enhance recall
• Cognitive interview: report everything


  Encouraged to include every detail of event even if seems irrelevant as may trigger other memories
• Cognitive interview: Reinstate context


  mentally recalls crime scene, imagines environment and their emotions

  Cues from context trigger recall(context-dependent forgetting)
• Cognitive interview: Reverse order


  Recall events in different chronological order

  Prevents dishonesty and expectations of how it happened rather then how it actual happened
• Cognitive interview: Change perspective


  Recall from others perspective

  Prevents influence of expectations ans schema on recall
• Cognitive interview: Fisher et al


  developed additional element - enhanced cognitive interview

  Includes focus on social dynamics of interaction and ideas of reducing anxiety,minimising distractions