Psychopathology

    Cards (58)

    • Statistical Infrequency
      Someone is mentally abnormal if their mental condition is rare in the population. The behaviour is judged objectively using statistics (comparing the individual’s behaviour to the rest of the population)
      For example, IQ is an example of statistical infrequency. The average IQ is 100. In normal distribution, most people have a score in range from 85-115. Only 2% have a score below 70. The individuals scoring below 70 are considered to be very unusual or abnormal.
    • Statistical Infrequency - EVALUATION 01
      One limitation of statistical infrequency is that abnormal characteristics can be seen as desirable/positive as well as negative. For example, having an IQ score above 130 is rare and wouldn’t be deemed as unusual, but that instead you are a genius. Whereas depression is considered to be a negative characteristic and requires treatment
    • Deviation from social norms

      Behaviour which deviates from norms and values of society. It violates the unwritten rules about what is expected and acceptable. Social norms vary from culture to culture.
      For example, someone who is suffering from anorexia does not tend to eat 3 regular-sized meals a day which deviates from what society says about eating breakfast, lunch and dinner.
    • Deviation from social norms - EVALUATION 01 (UCN)

      A strength of defining abnormality according to social norms is its usefulness. It is used in clinical practice, for example in defining the characteristics of anti-social personality disorder as the failure to conform to acceptable ethical behaviour (e.g. recklessness, aggression). This shows that deviation from social norms has value in psychiatry
    • Deviation from social norms (UCN) - EVALUATION 02

      One limitation of deviation from social norms is cultural relativism. For example, hearing voices or ‘hallucinations’ would have no basis in some western cultures, but in some African and Asian cultures would look upon this positively, viewing it as a sign of spirituality and/or a strong connection with relatives as opposed to being diagnosed as schizophrenia. This therefore suggests that the use of this definition of abnormalities could lead to discrepancies in the diagnosis of mental health disorders between cultures.
    • Deviation from social norms - EVALUATION 03 

      A weakness of deviation from social norms is that non-standard life-style choices could easily be labelled as abnormal. For example, not having a job or high-risk leisure activities may be classed as irritational and a danger to their own self. However, people with alternative lifestyle choose to live this way. This means that people who live this way are at risk of being labelled abnormal and their freedom of choice may be restricted.
    • Failure to function adequately
      When an individual can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life. For example, being unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition or hygiene or maintaining relationships
      • Someone is failing to function adequately when they can no longer conform to interpersonal rules
      • Experiencing severe distress
      • Behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others, maladaptive behaviour
    • Failure to function adequately - EVALUATIONS 01 (RCC)

      One strength of failure to function adequately is that it takes into account of the patient’s perspective and so the final diagnosis will contain the patient’s subjective and self-reported symptoms and the psychiatrist’s objective opinion. May lead to a more accurate diagnosis of mental health disorders. They won’t be constrained by statistical limits
    • Failure to function adequately - EVALUATION 02 (RCC)

      One criticism of failure to function adequately is that it is the decision if someone is coping is subjective and based on the clinicians opinion. This judgement may be biased as two clinicians may not agree on whether someone is coping or not
    • Failure to function adequately - EVALUATION 03 (RCC)
      Another criticism of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is that maladaptive behaviour does not always indicates a mental illness. Taking part in extreme sports, eating unhealthy food or drinking alcohol are all risks to an individual's health, so arguably maladaptive. However, most people would agree it would not be considered a mental illness
    • Deviation from ideal mental health
      Marie Jahoda’s definition focuses on ways to improve and become a better person rather than dysfunction and deficit. She identified 6 criteria of ideal mental health and argued deviation away from the features indicates abnormality. Examples include we can perceive ourselves accurately, We self-actualise, We can cope with stress, Good self-esteem and enjoy our leisure
    • Deviation from ideal mental health - EVALUATION 01 (PU)

      A strength of this definition of abnormality is that is is a more positive, constructive and holistic approach than the other definitions. It considers multiple factors in diagnosis and provides suggestions for personal improvement. The definition states what is wrong and ways to overcome the problems. It respects the individual and their own experience
    • Deviation from ideal mental health - EVALUATION 02 (PU)
      One limitation of deviation from ideal mental health is that it may have an unrealistic expectation of ideal mental health. The vast majority of people would be unable to meet all the criteria listed meaning the majority would be considered to be abnormal. Therefore this definition of abnormality may be considered to be a limited method in diagnosing mental health disorders.
    • Characteristics of Phobias - Behavioural
      • Panic —> Heightened physiological arousal when exposed to the phobic stimulus. For example, screaming and running away
      • Avoidance —> Avoidance behaviour is negatively reinforced because it is carried out to avoid the unpleasant consequence of exposure to the phobic stimulus. Avoidance severely impacts a person’s ability to continue with their day to day lives
      • Endurance —> A person remains exposed to the phobic stimulus for extended periods of time, but also experiences heightened anxiety at this time
    • Characteristics of Phobias - Emotional
      • Anxiety —> A high persistent state of arousal, making it difficult to relax. It is heightens when coming into contact with the phobia
      • Fear —> An intense emotional state linked to the fight-or-flight response. A sensation of extreme and unpleasant alertness when in the presence of the phobia and it only subsides once the phobic stimulus is removed
    • Characteristics of Phobias - Cognitive
      • Irrational thoughts —> Negative and irrational thoughts that includes an exaggerated belief that the the phobia will harm them when in contact
      • Poor concentration —> Cannot concentrate on everyday tasks as they have an excessive focus on the phobia and concerns about the potential danger they are in.
    • Characteristics of Depression - Emotional + Behavioural
      • BEHAVIOURAL:
      • Changes in eating behaviour —> Results in a significant weight loss or gain
      • Aggression —> Can be towards other people or to oneself (e.g. self-harming)
      • Reduction in activity levels —> Lacking energy to do everyday activities (e.g. personal hygiene or washing)
      • EMOTIONAL:
      • Sadness —>A persistent, low mood
      • Guilt —> A feeling that you have no value compared to other people
    • Characteristics of Depression - Cognitive
      • Poor concentration —> People with depression cannot give their full attention to tasks and often make indecisive decisions, competing options given to them
      • Negative schemas —> Automatic negative thoughts made about themselves, the world and future
    • Characteristics of OCD - Behavioural
      • Compulsions —> Behaviours performed repeatedly to reduce anxiety, however this only provides temporary relief. For example, seeing if the doors are locked or the lights/gas is turned off.
      • Avoidance —> People with OCD may attempt to reduce their anxiety by staying away from situations that trigger obsessions.
      • Social impairment —> Not participating in social activities. This social withdrawal often happens due to difficulty leaving the house without triggering obsessions and/or carrying out compulsions. This becomes time-consuming
    • Characteristics of OCD - Emotional
      • Anxiety —> Anxiety is an uncomfortably high and persistent state of arousal. The urge to repeat behaviour (compulsion) creates anxiety
      • Depression —> The result of not being able to control the anxiety-causing thoughts and OCD symptoms, leads to social withdrawal. This means low moods and a lack of enjoyment in activities
      • Guilt and disgust —> OCD involves other negative emotions such as irrational guilt (e.g. over minor moral issues) or disgust (e.g. against something external, like dirt or self)
    • Characteristics of OCD - Cognitive
      • Obsessive thoughts —> Intrusive, irrational and recurrent thoughts that are unpleasant about potential dangers
      • Awareness of excessive anxiety —> People with OCD are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational. They also tend to be hypervigilant (a permanent state of alertness and keep attention on potential hazards)
      • Selective attention —> This means an individual with OCD may be focused on objects connected to the obsession and this reduces focus on other things
    • Beck's Negative Triad

      • Faulty information processing: Depressed people look at the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives
      • Negative self-schema: Self-schema is the package of information people have about themselves. If someone has a negative self-schema, they interpret information about themselves in a negative way
      • Negative Triad: Negative view of the world, future and own self
    • Ellis's ABC Model
      1. A - Activating event: Irritational thoughts are triggered by external events. We get depressed when we experience negative events and these trigger irrational beliefs.
      2. B - Beliefs: Identification of a range of irrational beliefs.
      3. C - Consequences: When activating an event triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural consequences - depression
    • Cognitive approach to explaining depression - EVALUATION 01 (RRG)

      One strength of Beck’s negative triad is that it has real-world applications through screening and treatment for depression. This is seen in cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT). These type of therapies alter the way people see negative events and be more resilient to them.
    • Cognitive approach to explaining depression - EVALUATION 02 (RRG)

      One strength of Ellis’ ABC model is that it has real-world application in treatment. This is seen in Ellis’ approach to cognitive therapy called rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) where the therapist vigorously argues with a depressed person to dispel their irrational beliefs and relieve symptoms of depression.
    • Cognitive approach to explaining depression - EVALUATION 03 (RRG)

      One limitation is that genetic research shows that depression is inherited. Depression is likely to impact the action of serotonin the brain. The effectiveness of drugs such as SSRIs suggests the cognitive explanation is not complete, and that there is a biological aspect to depression
    • Cognitive approach to treating depression
      Identifying and challenging automatic negative thoughts about the world, self and future
    • Beck's cognitive therapy

      1. Identify automatic negative thoughts
      2. Challenge the thoughts
      3. Test the reality of negative beliefs
      4. Set homework (e.g. when someone is nice to them)
      5. Client acts as scientist
    • Ellis's rational emotive behaviour therapy

      1. Identify irrational thoughts
      2. Challenge irrational thoughts
      3. Vigorous argument between therapist and client
      4. Break the link between negative events and depression
    • Cognitive approach to treating depression - EVALUATION 01 (EME)

      One limitation of cognitive therapies is that it lacks effectiveness for severe cases of depression. Depression can be so severe that clients cannot motivate themselves to what is happening in the session, may not be able to commit to the therapy and pay attention. This suggests that CBT is only suitable for a specific range of people with depression. However, drug therapies may be needed to stabilise a patient before psychological treatment
    • Cognitive approach to treating depression - EVALUATION 02 (EME)

      Another limitation of cognitive therapies may minimise the importance of person’s social circumstances and focusses too much on what is going on in the present. A client may want to talk about severe trauma from there past and reinterpreting present situations does not help with the present situation. A client may want to talk about their unhealthy relationship, trouble with work, discrimination which are not irrational thoughts
    • Cognitive approach to treating depression - EVALUATION 02 (EME)

      One strength of CBT therapies is that there is evidence of its effectiveness. One study found that CBT had an effectiveness rate of 81% after 36 weeks of therapy (the same as drug therapy). The fact that these treatments are successful suggests that the underlying cognitive explanations to depression are valid
    • Two-process model
      1. Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning (learning through association)
      2. Phobias are maintained through operant conditioning
    • Watson (1920) - Little Albert
      • 9 month baby was exposed to an array of stimuli (white rat, a rabbit, fire) - showed no anxiety
      • When Little Albert tried to play with the rat (neutral stimulus), a metal bar was struck behind him which caused a frightening sound (unconditioned stimulus)
      • This elicited the unconditional response of fear in Albert
      • After striking the metal bar a couple of times when Albert attempted to play with the white rat, they were soon paired and the rat became the conditioned stimulus that produced the conditioned response of fear
    • Classical conditioning
      Learning through association
    • Operant conditioning
      Behaviour is rewarded or punished
    • Behavioural approach to explaining phobias - EVALUATIONS (RCB)
      One strength of the two-process model is it has real-world application in exposure therapies (such as flooding). Phobias are maintained by avoiding the phobic stimulus. In behavioural terms, the phobia is the avoidance behaviour, so by preventing avoidance behaviour - the phobia is cured. In flooding, the therapist does not give the option for any avoidance behaviour. This shows the value of the two-process model as shows a way for treating phobias.
    • Behavioural approach to explaining phobias - EVALUATIONS (RCB)

      One limitation of the two-process model is that it does not account for cognitive aspects. Phobias is not just avoidance behaviour, it also has a significant cognitive component like having irrational beliefs. The two-process model explains avoidance behaviour, but not phobic cognitions.
    • Behavioural approach to explaining phobias - EVALUATIONS (RCB)

      Another strength of the two-process model is that there is a link between bad experiences and phobias. One study found that 75% of people with a fear of dental treatment had experienced a traumatic experience with dentistry. Compared with a control group of people with low dental anxiety where only 21% had experienced a traumatic event.
    • Systematic desensitisation

      A type of behavioural therapy that gradually reduces phobic anxiety