Bio final review

• Atoms combine to form molecules
• Organelle


  Cellular component
• Smooth muscle cell


  Type of cell
• Chemical level


  Level of organization in the human body
• Cellular level


  Level of organization in the human body
• Smooth muscle tissue


  Type of tissue
• Cardiovascular system


  Organ system
• Tissue level


  Level of organization in the human body
• Epithelial tissue


  Type of tissue
• Organ level


  Level of organization in the human body
• Organ system level


  Level of organization in the human body
• Organismal level


  Level of organization in the human body
• Connective tissue


  Type of tissue
• The human body has many levels of structural organization
• At each level of the biological hierarchy, we find a correlation between structure and function—including at the organ system and organismal level
• Homeostasis


  Maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment

  
• Homeostasis is a central theme in physiological systems

  
• Components of homeostatic systems


  • Set point
  • Receptor
  • Control center
  • Effector
• Negative feedback loop


  Response moves the variable in the opposite direction as the initial stimulus
• Positive feedback loop


  Response moves the variable in the same direction as the initial stimulus
• Ligand


  A molecule that binds to usually a larger molecule (receptor)
• Receptor


  Chemical structure made of protein that receive and transduce signals
• Cell signaling


  1. Signal reception

  2. Signal transduction

  3. Cellular response
• Types of signaling receptors


  • Cell surface receptors
  • Intracellular receptors
• Phosphorylation


  Addition of phosphate groups
• Dephosphorylation


  Removal of phosphate groups
• Types of protein kinases


  • Serine-Threonine kinase
  • Tyrosine kinase
• Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation system acts as a molecular switch, turning activities on and off, or up or down, as required
• Second messengers


  Small molecules and ions that relay signals received by cell-surface receptors to effector proteins
• Common second messengers


  • Cyclic AMP
  • Calcium ions
• GPCR signaling


  1. GTP-bound G protein activates adenylyl cyclase which converts ATP into cAMP

  2. Inositol triphosphate binds to Ca2+ channels on endoplasmic reticulum, causing release of Ca2+ into the cytoplasm
• Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)


  A type of enzyme receptor
• Enzyme cascades amplify the cell's response to the signal
• Cellular responses


  • Nuclear response
  • Cytoplasmic response
• Central nervous system (CNS)


  Brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)


  Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
• Divisions of the nervous system


  • Sensory (afferent) division
  • Motor (efferent) division
• Subdivisions of the motor (efferent) division


  • Somatic nervous system
  • Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

  
• Subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system


  • Sympathetic division
  • Parasympathetic division
• Neuron


  Functional unit of the nervous system