specification

• Processes of coastal erosion

  1. Hydraulic action

  2. Attrition

  3. Solution

  4. Abrasion/Corrasion
• Hydraulic action


  The force of the waves on the coast. When the waves crash against the coast, materials can be dislodged.
• Attrition


  The rocks and pebbles collide into each other and wear each other until smooth.
• Solution


  Soluble minerals are dissolved in the sea
• Abrasion/Corrasion


  The material carried by the waves erodes into the coast.
• Formation of headlands and bays

  Where the coast has alternating bands of hard/resistant and soft/non-resistant rocks, the soft rocks are eroded rapidly to form bays. The hard rock juts out into the sea as headlands.
• Formation of cave


  When waves erode cracks/fissures/crevices of the rock, they eventually form a hollow known as a cave.
• Formation of wave-cut platform


  When waves crash against cliffs, a notch is formed at the base of the cliff. The overhang collapses and the cliff retreats. The material from the collapsed overhang accumulates at the base of the cliff forming a wave cut platform. This is only visible in low tide.
• Formation of arch


  When caves on either side of a headland erode inward to meet, they form a natural arch.
• Formation of beach


  The build-up of material such as sand, pebbles and rocks by the waves. The larger material is deposited at the high tide mark. Constructive waves are responsible for the formation of beaches as they have a strong swash and weak backwash.
• Formation of spit


  Material that is carried by longshore drift. Where the coastline changes shape, the material is deposited. This deposited material grows in length forming a spit.
• Formation of tombolo


  This is where a spit connects an island to the mainland. A spit is formed on the coast and keeps growing until it connects to an island.
• Constructive waves


  Less than 10 waves break on the shore, long wave lengths, spill on the shore when breaking, deposit material
• Destructive waves


  More than 10 waves break on the shore, short wave lengths, plunge on the shore, remove material and erode the beach
• Longshore drift


  The waves approach the shore at an angle. The swash moves up the shore at an angle carrying material. The backwash moves in a straight line down the shore and moves material. The waves carry the material at an angle and remove the material in a straight line across the shore.
• Weathering


  The breakdown or decomposition of rocks in situ
• Erosion


  The sculpting of the land by natural agents such as running water, waves, wind and ice
• Temperature change destroying rocks

  In hot deserts, the daytime temperatures can reach 40°C and during the night time, temperatures can reach 0°C (freezing). Rocks expand in the day and contract in the night. This causes stresses in the rock that produces cracks. These cracks are lines of weaknesses and rocks shatter along cracks.
• Frost shattering


  During the day, joints in rocks fill with water from rainfall. At night, cold temperatures cause the water to freeze. This freezing causes the ice to expand by about 10%. When the ice melts, water fills the joint again during the day. The water freezes at night and exerts force on the rock. Eventually the joints are widened by the repeated freezing and thawing cycles. This causes the rock to eventually shatter.
• Rock structure of limestone

  Limestone has bedding planes and joints that are perpendicular to the bedding planes. Water can pass through these joints and bedding planes.
• Chemical composition of limestone

  Limestone is made up of calcium carbonate. This reacts with carbonic acid to produce calcium bicarbonate which is soluble and can be removed is solution.
• Water contributing to weathering of rocks

  Water reacts with certain minerals in rocks. Some minerals absorb water and some reacts with water to produce a different compound.

  2. Carbonation is where rain water (carbonic acid) reacts with calcium carbonate to produce calcium bicarbonate which is removed in solution.
• Characteristics of limestone


  • Limestone is made up of calcium carbonate

  2. Limestone is pervious due to joints and bedding planes
• Formation of swallow holes


  Weathering and erosion attack joints forming a large opening in the rock which usually connects to an underground cave. Rivers flow into swallow holes and enter underground caves.
• Formation of stalactites


  Water passing through bedding planes and joints of limestone hang from the roofs where carbon dioxide is evaporated. This leaves a deposit of calcite which builds over time to form a stalactite.
• Formation of pillars in limestone areas


  Weathering attacks the joints of limestone. The joints are weathered to form depressions or grykes and the pillars that remain standing are called clints.
• Primary economic activity


  The extraction of raw materials e.g. fishing, mining, agriculture
• Secondary economic activity


  The processing of raw materials into finished products e.g. sugar cane to sugar
• Tertiary activity


  The provision of services and includes tourism, banking, insurance, transportation etc.
• Importance of agriculture in the Caribbean


  • Source of food for the country
  • Source of income for farmers
  • Provision of raw materials for food processing and linkages
  • Excess can be exported to earn revenue
• Physical factor influencing agriculture

  Availability of land for planting crops, climate: warm temperatures, no dormant season, rainfall during wet season
• Economic factor influencing agriculture


  Demand for food and raw materials. Linkages with supermarkets and hotels.
• Characteristics of large-scale arable farming in the Caribbean

  • Large farms, several hectares of land used
  • Large scale production
  • Extensive agriculture, low output per hectare
  • Monoculture
• Characteristics of peasant farming in the Caribbean

  • Size of plots: very small, about 1 to 1 ½ hectares
  • Labour supply: usually family members and a few hired hands
  • Location: hillsides, rural areas
  • Farming practices: use of traditional methods, simple tools
• Reasons for the decline in importance of agriculture in the Caribbean

  • More disposable income hence more demand for tertiary services
  • More people gravitating towards careers in tertiary sector, less tedious, manual labour and more income
• Environmental degradation from manufacturing in Jamaica


  Large areas of forests had to be cleared to establish the bauxite industry

  2. A residue of bauxite mining called red mud. If red mud is deposited on permeable soil, the caustic soda in the red mud seep into groundwater storages hence polluting them.
• Benefits of the manufacturing sector

  • Employment provided which gives employees a source of income
  • Exploitation of resources
  • Development of infrastructure
  • Revenue earned from exports
  • Can improve balance of payments
• Benefits of the food processing industry

  • Source of employment and income
  • Use of local raw materials to create finished products that are sold locally
  • Growing demand stimulates more production
• Challenges faced by the food processing industry

  • Caribbean: small-scale production, competition from foreign goods, dependent on local and regional markets
  • Singapore: competition from other countries, changing demands of the market (demand for healthier options, demand for food that is suited for the aging population), need to increase food production
• Food processing industry


  • Source of employment and income
  • Use of local raw materials to create finished products that are sold locally
  • Growing demand stimulates more production