Sci Finals

• Biological macromolecules


  Large molecules necessary for life, include carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins
• Polymer


  A relatively large molecule consisting of a chain or network of many identical or similar monomers chemically bonded to each other
• Monomer


  • A relatively small molecule that can form covalent bonds with other molecules of this type to form a polymer
• Monosaccharides


  • Glucose
  • Fructose
  • Galactose
• Peptide


  Short chain of amino acids monomer linked by peptide bonds
• Hormones


  Special chemical messengers that are created in the endocrine gland
• Amino acids


  Organic compounds that combined to form proteins
• Enzymes


  Proteins that make the biochemical reaction fast
• Nucleotide


  Made up of three components: Nitrogen containing base, five carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
• Phospholipids


  Contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group
• Carbohydrates


  • Type of macronutrient found in certain foods and drinks
  • Our body turns carbs into glucose (blood sugar) to give us the energy we need to function
  • Sugars, starches, and fiber
  • Energy production, energy storage, and building macromolecules
  • Adequate carbohydrate intake spares protein from being used as an energy source
• Carbohydrates


  • Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
  • A ratio of roughly one carbon atom (C) to one water molecule (H2O)
  • Made of carbon (carbo) + water (hydrate) = carbohydrate
• Types of Carbs

  • Simple Carbs
  • Complex Carbs
• Simple Carbs


  • One or two sugar molecules are present
  • Trigger an increase in blood sugar levels as their molecules are rapidly absorbed and digested
  • Lacking fiber, vitamins, and minerals, they are often referred to as empty calories
• Types of Simple Carbs

  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Oligosaccharides
• Monosaccharides


  • Incapable of being broken down any further
  • Referred to as "simple sugars" or simply "sugars"
  • The term monosaccharide means one saccharide or one sugar, indicating that it is a molecule composed of only one sugar unit
  • Easily dissolves in water
  • Formula: (CH₂O)n, where n is any number equal or greater than 3
  • Examples: Glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), and galactose
• Disaccharides


  • Formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage
  • Are polar compounds, are soluble in water, and possess a sweet taste
  • Formula: (C 12H 22O 11)
  • Examples: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
• Oligosaccharides


  • Contain two or more than two monosaccharides
  • Consist 2-9 monomers
  • Generally exhibit properties similar to mono- and disaccharides with similar functional groups
  • Less soluble in aqueous alcohol solutions than monosaccharides
  • Common structural motifs include di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and hexa-saccharides, which consist of two, three, four, five, and six monosaccharide units, respectively
  • Formula: C37H62N2O29
  • Examples: Lactose, Maltose, Raffinose, Fructooligosaccharides and Galactooligosaccharides
• Complex Carbs


  • Less likely to spike blood sugar than simple carbs
  • Made up of sugar molecules that are strung together in long, complex chains
  • Found in foods such as peas, beans, whole grains, and vegetables
  • Fiber and starch are the two types of complex carbohydrates
• Polysaccharides


  • Major classes of biomolecules
  • Long chains of carbohydrate molecules, composed of several smaller monosaccharides
  • Can be a straight chain of monosaccharides known as linear polysaccharides, or it can be branched known as a branched polysaccharide
  • Six-carbon repeating monosaccharides linked together by oxygen
  • Consist of many monomers
  • Linked together by glycosidic bonds
  • Formula: Cx(H2O)y where x and y are usually large numbers between 200 and 2500
• Types of Polysaccharides

  • Homopolysaccharides
  • Heteropolysaccharides
• Examples of Carbohydrates


  • Table Sugar
  • Vaccines
  • Medicines
• Proteins

  • Large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body
  • They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs
  • Account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells they are instrumental in almost everything and organism does
  • Have four structures: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary
• Amino Acids


  • Building blocks of proteins, which are held together by peptide bonds, which is a chemical bond referring to the reaction between the carboxyl group of one molecule with the amino group of the other molecule which releases water
  • Polypeptide chain: A string of amino acid, protein may contain more than one of these chains
• Primary Structure


  • The unique sequence of amino acids that make up the protein
  • The order of amino acids in proteins is determined by the genetic information given by DNA
• Secondary Structure


  • Most proteins have segments that are coiled and folded and will do so according to the arrangement of amino acids
  • This occurs due to H-bonding (Hydrogen Bonds) which can occur in specific areas of the protein
  • The two common folds are the α helix (alpha helix) and the β-pleated sheet (beta-pleated sheet)
• Tertiary Structure


  • The overall three-dimensional arrangement of its polypeptide chain in space
  • It is determined by the interactions between R-groups which are the side chains
  • These R-groups make amino acids unique as they are either hydrophobic, hydrophilic, ionic, etc. which can affect the folding
  • It also consists of hydrogen bonds between polar or charged areas, ionic bonds between charged R groups, hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions among R groups, and Van Der Waals interactions
• Quaternary Structure


  • The association of several protein chains or subunits into a closely packed arrangement
  • It is a protein with two or more polypeptide chains that form subunits
  • It is also being held together by hydrogen bonds or disulfide bonds
• The shape of the protein and its folding matter because proteins must be correctly folded into specific, three-dimensional shapes in order to function correctly
• Unfolded or misfolded proteins contribute to the pathology of many diseases
• Proteins


  • Amino acids have both carboxyl and amino groups
  • The characteristics of these amino acids can also be determined by the R= groups which makes the amino acids unique and can affect its folding; it could be either hydrophobic, hydrophilic, ionic, etc.
• Proteins in Medicinal Uses


  • Hepatitis B Vaccine
  • Shingles Vaccine
  • SARS CoV2 Vaccine
• Proteins in Digestion and Culinary Uses

  Proteins in digestion can come in the form of enzymes that act as a catalyst to chemical reactions in the body, such as the chemical reactions in your digestive track used to chemically break down the food eaten
• Proteins in Diet


  • Proteins largely contribute to the diet of the human body
  • It is needed for the body's growth and maintenance
  • It also promotes muscle growth and strength when paired with exercise
• Proteins in Food Industry

  Because protein is such an important part of our diet, it is of course sold in the food industry in delicious meals or raw for people to cook themselves for their daily sustenance
• Denaturation


  • The chemical breaking down of proteins when exposed to heat, acid, or mechanical action
  • One example is the breaking down of gluten (a protein), developing it through constant kneading of dough
• Coagulation


  The process of proteins turning from a liquid to a more solid gel-like form, causing it to thicken, like collagen found in soup stock that causes it to turn gelatinous when cold
• Emulsification


  • The property of proteins to stabilize two liquids that would not naturally mix together
  • Like mustard being mixed with oil and vinegar to create vinaigrette despite oil and vinegar being immiscible
• Proteins in Skin, Hair and Nail Care

  • Your body uses proteins to build tissue cells — including the cells of your hair, skin and nails
  • Eighty to eighty-five percent of your hair is composed of a protein called keratin
  • Hair is a filamentous biomaterial consisting mainly of proteins in particular keratin
  • Collagen and elastin, two proteins vital for skin elasticity and regeneration, rely on dietary protein
• Protein-based Products


  • Keratin Conditioner
  • Collagen Face Masks