misleading information

• schemas - mental frameworks that allow us to process information quicker about objects people ect - by making mental shortcuts - can lead to stereotyping and ignoring important information
• reconstructive memory


  memory not accurate at recording all events -may reconstruct them when we recall them causing errors
• leading questions


  questions may imply a participants answer changing participant memory or emotion
• response bias


  not a change in memory - but due to emotional pressure changes their response
• substitution bias


  actual change to a memory
• post event discussion


  when recalling events by one witness alters the accuracy of recall by another witness
• Loftus and Palmer 1st research


  Participants asked "how fast was the car going when it SMASHED, BUMBED, COLLIDED or CONTACTED

  • found extreme verbs created faster responses in mph
  • contacted = 31mph whereas smashed = 40mph
  • suggesting misleading info can influence recall in eyewitness testimonies
• Loftus and Palmer 2


  participants asked "how fast the car was going when the car "hit" or "smashed"" - then after a week after participants where then asked "was there any broken glass" (there was no broken glass in the car accident"

  • participants in the group smashed where 2x more likely to say yes
  • suggesting that leading questions can create substitution bias - changing memory
• Gabbert et al

  participants in 2 groups in pairs - watched a crime act out from different perspectives, each including unique parts. one group of pairs could discuss after watching and the other couldn't

  • group which could discuss after watching the crime scene - found that 71% said things that they couldn't have seen compared to the 0% who couldn't discuss
  • suggest witnesses will change their account of the crime to match others memory conformity.
• missleading info real world application


  EWT can be improved through research conducted e.g Loftus and Palmer to prevent Leading questions - creation of the cognitive interview
• Experimental design - misleading information


  Due to most studies being conducted in Labs studies can lack ecological validity. because when giving EWT there is lack of consequences for giving incorrect statement - could this be different if they where under oath ? or if the EWT lead to actual convictions
• Lab studies - misleading info 


  demand characteristics due to participants giving the experimenters the answers they think they want - in research leading questions this can lead to response bias