Psychology

• Independent Variable (IV)


  The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to check its effect on the dependent variable
• Dependent Variable (DV)


  The variable being measured by the researcher
• Research Methods


  • Experiments
  • Self Reports and Case Studies
  • Observations and Correlations
  • Research Process
  • Ethical Considerations
  • Evaluating Research
• Experiments

  • Look for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is manipulated to cause a change in the dependent variable
• Experiment types


  • Laboratory experiment
  • Field experiment
  • Natural experiment
  • Quasi-experiment
• Laboratory Experiments


  • The experiment is conducted in an unnatural and controlled environment. The IV is manipulated by the researcher.
• Field Experiments


  • The experiment takes place in natural settings, and the IV is manipulated by the researcher.
• Natural Experiments


  • The experiment takes place in a natural setting and the IV is not directly manipulated by the researcher. It happens naturally by chance.
• Quasi-Experiments


  • The researcher has lots of control over the procedure, but not over the allocation of participants.
• Experimental Design types


  • Independent measures design
  • Repeated measures design
  • Matched Pairs Design
• Order effects


  • Practice effect - due to familiarity or learning how to solve the task
  • Fatigue effect - Participants' performance declines when participating for too long, due to boredom or tiredness
• Counterbalancing


  When the order in which each group attends each level of the IV is the opposite. A,B. B,A.
• Randomisation


  When you choose your sample for the study randomly
• Self Report methods


  • Questionnaires
  • Interviews
• Questionnaires


  • Close-ended (pre-set answer choices, quantitative data)
  • Open-ended (qualitative data)
• Interviews


  • Structured (fixed questions)
  • Unstructured (questions depend on the answer of the respondent)
  • Semi-structured (fixed and unwritten questions)
• Case Studies


  Detailed investigations about a single person or a small group. The maximum amount of qualitative and quantitative data is gathered.
• Observation types


  • Naturalistic observation
  • Controlled Observation
• Observation methods


  • Unstructured
  • Structured
• Correlation


  A statistical relationship that suggests the probability of a true relationship between the IV and DV of the study. A correlational relationship is not necessarily a causal relationship.
• Hypothesis types


  • Non-directional hypotheses
  • Directional hypotheses
  • Null hypotheses
• Operationalisation


  Defining variables to accurately manipulate, measure, quantify, and replicate
• Pilot studies


  Conducted to analyse the technical and financial risks and to assess the feasibility of the study. Any plausible confounding variables are found and controlled to ensure it does not affect the real trial.
• Standardised procedures


  Important to ensure that all participants undergo the same procedure. This helps to increase reliability and replicability.
• Sampling methods


  • Opportunity sampling
  • Volunteer (self-selecting) sampling
  • Random sampling
• Data types


  • Quantitative Data
  • Qualitative Data
• Measure of central tendency


  A mathematical way to find the average score from a data set using the mode, median, and mean
• Measure of spread


  A mathematical way to describe the variation within a data set
• Standard Deviation


  The average difference between each score in the data set and the mean
• Graphs


  • Bar charts
  • Histograms
  • Scatter graphs
  • Normal distribution curves
• Ethical considerations for human participants


  • Informed consent
  • Protection (physical and physiological)
  • Right to withdraw
  • Deception
  • Confidentiality
  • Privacy
  • Debriefing
• Ethical considerations for animal research


  • Replacement
  • Species and strain
  • The number of animals
  • Pain and distress
  • Housing
  • Rewards, deprivation, and aversive stimuli
  • Anaesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia
• Reliability


  The consistency of the outcome
• Validity


  The extent to which the study measures what is intended to study
• Ecological Validity


  The extent to which the results of the study represent real-life behaviour
• Generalisability


  The extent to which the results represent the behaviour of the target population
• Test-retest


  A way to measure the consistency of a test. The test is used twice and if the scores on both tests are similar, then it has good reliability.
• Demand Characteristics


  When participants change their behaviour as they derive cues on what is expected of them
• Inter-rater reliability


  The extent to which similar conclusions are produced by two researchers interpreting the same qualitative responses
• Inter-observer reliability


  The extent to which similar observations are produced by two researchers observing the same event