Language

• Knowledge


  The stored, conscious, and accessible information/memories in the brain. Knowledge is not stored in just one part of the brain, but is widely distributed throughout the cortex.
• Types of knowledge


  • Factual knowledge
  • Conceptual knowledge
  • Procedural knowledge
  • Metacognition
• Factual knowledge


  Facts stored in long term memory
• Conceptual knowledge


  The awareness of concepts stored in long-term memory (Knowing why, principle/schemes)
• Procedural knowledge


  The knowledge exercised in the performance of a task or the necessary steps to complete a task (Knowing how, production)
• Metacognition


  The awareness of one's own cognition (planning, monitoring, evaluation, regulation)
• Comprehension


  Our ability to comprehend concepts and the environment we live in is a cognitive process known as comprehension. It is comprised of a multifaceted process involving thinking, learning, information, and experience.
• Types of comprehension


  • Literal Comprehension
  • Inferential Comprehension
  • Evaluative Comprehension
• Literal Comprehension


  Happens on the outside when a viewer or reader acknowledges what they are able to see and hear. The specifics are spelled out and easily recognizable to anyone.
• Inferential Comprehension


  This implies that the details are never expressed in a clear manner. Inferring is the process of using these hints to gain a deeper comprehension of what you are reading.
• Evaluative Comprehension


  Forming an opinion regarding something's value, the potential, or efficacy of material in accordance with predetermined standards or criteria is a form of evaluation comprehension.
• Top-down model of comprehension


  Proposed by Goodman (1967) and is based on psycholinguistic theory. Cognitive and language competence plays a key role in terms of better understanding or meaning making. Comprehension is acquired through graphic, syntactic, and semantic cue systems. This model is most common to advanced or more advanced skilled readers.
• Bottom-up model of comprehension


  Reading is basically a translating, encoding, and decoding process. Behaviourist approach and skill achievement theory is applied. Comprehension is obtained automatically when accurate word recognition is achieved. This model is suitable for those children who have just started to read or beginner readers.
• Structure-building model of comprehension


  Proposed by Dr. Morton Gernsbacher in 1990, in which she aimed to create a comprehension model that can be used regardless of medium, whether it is text, photos, or videos. This model is an iterative procedure with three processes: laying a foundation, mapping, and shifting to new structures. It has two mechanisms: enhancing and suppressing.
• Construction-integration model of comprehension


  Proposed by Dr. Walter Kintsch in 1988, where he thinks that reading comprehension could have more connection/relationships from other texts than to just one. A model of comprehension that is more related to making inferential connections towards the text to one another. It is divided into two concepts: construction and integration. Cohesiveness and coherence of this model is justified by the three representations under the C-I comprehension model: the surface structure, the textbase, and the situation model.
• Kintsch's classification of inferences


  • Automatic
  • Controlled
  • Retrieved
  • Generated
• Widdowson's model of comprehension


  Widdowson's (1983) model is primarily concerned with the theoretical background to teaching English for Specific Purposes, but it is a Discourse Model that is firmly based on Schema Theory. Widdowson describes schemata as cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long term memory and which provide a basis for prediction. They are kinds of stereotypic image which we map onto actuality in order to make sense of it and to provide it with a coherent pattern.
• Widdowson's three tier model

  • Systematic Level (Linguistic Competence)
  • Schematic Level (Ability for Use or Communicative Capacity)
  • Procedural Level (Actual Performance)
• Systematic Level (Linguistic Competence)


  It deals with producing and understanding grammatically correct sentences, and communicative competence that deals with producing and understanding sentences that are appropriate and acceptable to an particular situation.
• Schematic Level (Ability for Use or Communicative Capacity)


  It is both "Ideational" and "Interpersonal" this tier in short pertains to the conventional knowledge of a person to do something, based on "plans" "scripts" it gives an idea of a persons daily habit. According to Widdowson's this behavior can also be called Schematic Routines.
• Procedural Level (Actual Performance)


  Is a model of the process involved when a reader or speaker must negotiate or co-construct meaning because the schematic world of the text or the interlocutor is not the same as their own. The greater the difference the worlds, the more procedural work will be required to reach an understanding.
• Interactive-compensatory model of comprehension

  The Interactive-Compensatory Model of Comprehension incorporates the "Compensatory Mode" to his model with the interaction between the top-down and bottom-up processing. This model enabled researchers to theorize how good and poor readers approach a text. The model also presents that comprehension includes processes operating at many levels, e.g. letter recognition, word recognition, phrase recognition, and so on. It assumes that recognition takes place via the simultaneous amalgamation of information from many different knowledge sources, and that deficiencies at any level in the processing hierarchy can be compensated for by greater use of information from other levels irrespective of the level of the deficient process.
• Language processing is a complex cognitive function that relies heavily on specific areas and networks in the brain. For most right-handed individuals, language abilities are predominantly localized in the left hemisphere, although there can be variability.
• Broca's area


  Found in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. Primarily responsible for speech production and articulation. Coordinates the movements required for speech and helps assemble words into coherent sentences. Damage to this area leads to Broca's aphasia, characterized by slow, halting speech production while comprehension remains intact.
• Wernicke's area


  Located in the temporal lobe, adjacent to the auditory cortex, in the left hemisphere. Key role in language comprehension and understanding. Processes and interprets the meaning of words and sentences, allowing for fluent comprehension of spoken and written language. Damage results in Wernicke's aphasia, where speech is fluent but often nonsensical, and comprehension is impaired.
• Aphasia


  A language disorder caused by damage in a specific area of the brain that controls language expression and comprehension. Aphasia leaves a person unable to communicate effectively with others. Many people have aphasia as a result of stroke.
• Broca's Aphasia


  A language disorder resulting from damage to Broca's area in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. Characterized by telegraphic speech, difficulty forming sentences, and limited vocabulary. Symptoms include impaired speech production and slow, effortful speech.
• Wernicke's Aphasia


  A language disorder resulting from damage to Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere. Characterized by impaired comprehension, fluent but nonsensical speech, and word finding difficulties.
• Global Aphasia


  A severe form of aphasia resulting from damage to the areas of the brain responsible for language processing, typically in the left hemisphere. Individuals experience significant impairments in both expressive and receptive language skills.
• Anomic Aphasia


  Also known as anomia, is a type of aphasia characterized by difficulty in finding the right words for objects or expressing thoughts. People with anomic aphasia can often understand speech and speak fluently, but they struggle with word retrieval.
• Wernicke's aphasia


  Fluent and articulated speech, but may lack meaning or coherence. Sentences may be filled with made-up words or phrases that don't fit the context.
• Word Finding Difficulties in Wernicke's aphasia


  Trouble finding the right words to express thoughts. May use incorrect words or substitute words that sound similar but have different meanings.
• Global aphasia


  Severe form of aphasia, resulting in significant impairments in both expressive and receptive language skills.
• Anomic aphasia


  Difficulty in finding the right words for objects or expressing thoughts. Can understand speech and speak fluently, but struggle with word retrieval.
• The profound connection between language and neurology highlights how intricately our ability to communicate is linked to the structure and function of the brain.
• Language processing involves complex neural networks and multiple brain regions working together.
• Studying the relationship between language and neurology is crucial for understanding human communication because it offers insights into how language is learned, processed, and produced in the brain.
• It helps us understand the mechanisms underlying language disorders, like aphasia, and how they affect communication abilities.
• Cognitive development


  Comprehending how cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, problem-solving, and language, change and develop across the entire span of a person's life, from infancy through old age.
• Stages of cognitive development


  • Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5 years)
  • Middle Childhood (6-11 years)
  • Adolescence (12-18 years)
  • Adulthood (18 years and older)
  • Old Age (65 years and older)