Section A

• what are rural push factors?

  1. low wages
  2. limited access to services such as healthcare
  3. poor living conditions
  4. conflict and war
  5. crop failure and famine due to natural disasters
• urban pull factors

  1. high wages and more job opportunities
  2. better access to healthcare and education
  3. improved standard of living
  4. more entertainment
• megaity


  a city with a population over 10 million
• how many megacities are there currently in the world?

  35 megacities
• why does urbanisation occur


  natural increase - when the birth rate is higher than the death rate, increasing the population.
• why do birth rates increase?

  birth rates increase because most migrants are young and many are likely to have children
• why are death rates decreasing?

  death rates decrease as improved standards of living and healthcare increase life expectancies
• what percent of the world lives in urban areas?

  50% of the population
• Rio Fact File

  • Rio is the 2nd largest city in Brazil with a population of 13 million people
  • highly diversified economy. Home to Brazil's 3rd busiest port, Rio is a key trading area in SA, exporting coffee, sugar, rubber and other goods.
  • Popular tourist destination due to landmarks such as the statue of Christ the Redeemer, Sugarloaf Mountain and its beaches.
• causes of urban growth in Rio

  • largely due to rural to urban migration as people move from the countryside into cities for a better quality of life and improved opportunities.
  • Many migrants are young adults, so birth rates are high with low death rates, causing a national population increase.
  • The high population growth rate has seen Rio's population more than treble in the 1950s.
• Social opportunities in Rio

  • Legal residents in Brazil receive free, universal healthcare. In urban areas such as Rio, residents are more connected to emergency health care services with better access to facilities than those in rural areas.
  • over 1000 public schools across Rio which provide free education. As a result, the adult literacy rate is 99% while the national average is 93%!
  • due to its industrial importance, Rio has developed its energy and water services, which improves health and safety of residents.
• Challenges in Rio - Managing urban growth

  • affordable housing shortages lead to migrants living in quarter camps and overcrowded slums called favelas
  • roads are heavily congested as the number of cars increase.
• challenges in Rio - environmental issues

  • air pollution from traffic and congestion causes 5000 deaths a year
  • untreated water causes high pollution. 200 tonnes of raw sewage enters the Guanabara Bay every day
  • Rio generates around 3.5 million tonnes of waste per year. Refuse collection in favelas is difficult on steep, poorly constructed roads so waste is often dumped which increases the risk of disease.
• Challenges in Rio - Access to services

  • attendance rates of students from low income families are much lower than students from high income families. 50% of children do not continue their education after the age of 14.
  • Access to healthcare in poor urban areas is limited, with infant mortality rate are as high as 50 per 1000 in vulnerable areas.
• Challenges in Rio - high unemployment and crime

  • unemployment in favelas is near 20%
  • 1/3 of workers are in the informal work sector, doing dangerous low paid-work
  • organized crime is rife in favelas
• challenges in Rio - sanitation, water and energy

  • many of the poorest areas do not have fresh water. 34% of residents' do not have their sewage collected or treated.
  • electricity cables run above ground and are unreliable. Power cuts are regular, with blackouts lasting over 10 hours.
• Favela Bairro Project


  Materials are provided to residents to improve their own houses while installing basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity, water, and sanitation.

   Access to fresh water and sanitation has been provided, along with paved roads. 

   Schools and health centres have been built along with a cable car to transport workers to the commercial centre of Ipanema
• issues with favela bairro project

  • costly due to the continued rapid growth of Rio de Janeiro
  • infrastructure needs constant maintenance
  • people need training in construction
• what are the 2 main methods rio's gov have tried to urban plan?

  bus rapid transit and favela Bairro project
• what was the aim of the bus rapid transit?

  to improve access to the city and reduce congestion and air pollution
• London Fact File

  • Location: south-east england on the river thames
• London Fact File


  National importance: largest and wealthiest city in the UK, home to 10% of the UK population. It is the UK centre for government, finance and business

  International importance: it is an international centre for media, education and culture. It is leading global financial centre and home to the London Stock Exchange.
• London's Rising Population

  • National Migration: people move to London from within the UK to study and seek employment.
  • International Migration: people move to London from abroad to study or work. One third of London's population was born abroad.
  • Natural increase
• Social and Economic opportunities : London

  • Cultural mix: London is the most ethnically diverse in UK. Wide range of international communities, it offers a mix of cultures, cuisines and entertainment.
  • Recreation and Entertainment: wide variety of sports and music venues. Thriving hubs of galleries, cafes and bars.
  • Employment : lots of jobs in the service sector -> factories on the outskirts of the city also offer employment opportunities.
  • Transport : London has integrated network of Tube lines, trains, and buses.
• Social and Economic Challenges : London

  • Urban deprivation: more than 1/4 of London's population lives below the poverty line. Declining industry and poor housing conditions have led to significant deprivation.
  • Inequalities in housing: house prices are raising fast, pricing many people out of the housing market. Affordable housing that is available, is often in poor condition. 60% of children live in low-income households with poor housing.
• Social and Economic Challenges ( 2 ) : London

  • inequalities in education and employment: students in poorer areas often leave with less qualification -> low levels of employment and low wages
  • inequalities in health: unhealthy lifestyles and low life expectancies. Women in Kensington can live to 86, while in Dagenham it's projected at 82.
• Environmental challenges in London 


  Dereliction and Brownfield sites: industrial decline forced inner city factories and buildings to close, leaving large areas polluted and derelict. Building on Brownfield sites is better for the environment than building on greenfield -> but it is costly to clear and decontaminate the land.

  Waste disposal: around 25% of London's waste goes to landfill, and air pollution is very high due to traffic.
• Urban Sprawl 


  urban sprawl -> growth of urban areas into surrounding rural areas. As the population grows, the demand for housing increases, causing the city to expand and sprawl out. Rate of housebuilding in London has tripled out since 2013. Much of this has been along the rural-urban fringe, enroaching into rural areas, destroying natural habitats and harming the environment
• commuter settlements


  areas in the rural-urban fringe where people live, but work elsewhere. Near London this has caused house prices to rocket and worsened traffic congestion.
• Stratford fact file


  Located in the London Borough of Newham.

  Part of the Lower Lea Valley, where the River Lea was once heavily polluted.

  After the London docks closed in the 1960s, the area deindustrialised.

  Was part of the area chosen as the site for 2012 Olympics.
• why did Stratford need regenerating?

  • Plenty of people who needed work
  • GSCE performance area was generally low and schools in dire need of investment
  • with its international rail terminal, had potential for good transport links
  • many Brownfield sites ideal for working on
• Main features of Stratford's regeneration

  • improve infrastructure -> transport improvements included new high-speed trains with a wider range of connections
  • increase affordable housing -> 2800+ new homes were built to accommodate lower-income families
  • tackle unemployment -> International Quarter Technology Centre and Westfield helped to create 1000s of jobs
• 2 other features of Stratford regeneration

  • boost the economy - > the park brought over 9 million pounds of investment and attracted over 8.5 million visitors over the Games period aone. This resulted in 2.1 billion pounds of additional spending by 2016
  • improve environment -> contaminated land and Brownfield sites were reclaimed to create new wildlife habitats and parks.
• Traffic congestion solutions

  • charging more for using roads -> high parking fees, penalties for overstaying time limits, encourage public transport
  • improve public transport -> fast / reliable services, designated bus lanes
  • create pedestrianized shopping areas -> roads safer for pedestrian, reduce congestion
  • promote park and ride schemes -> encourage people to park outside the city to take short bus rides can reduce congestion during busy events
• env sustainability in freiburg


  rainwater is collected and reused

  $150,000m^2$of solar cells and panels generate 10 million kWh per year.

  42% of the city is forested

  44,000 trees have been planted to improve air quality

  over 69% of packaging recycled

  bioenergy
• Traffic congestion issues

  • emergency vehicles may have difficulty getting through
  • air pollution increases as more greenhouses gases released
  • higher risk of accidents
  • people commuting to work may be late due to the congestion
• environmental sustainability

  • establishing 350 community collection points for recycling
  • collecting garden waste and organic food, which is used to generate gas in a biogas digester
  • providing energy for 28000 homes from burning waste
  • reducing annual waste disposal from 140000 tons to 50000 tonnes in 12 years
• urban transport strategies - freiburg

  • large tram network connecting the city reducing the need for cars
  • limited number of residents parking spaces on the city's outer regions that can cost up to 20,000pounds. This encourages cycling and walking over driving
  • the city has over 400km of cycle paths and 9,000 bicycle parking spaces.
• Where is London?


  Capital City of UK & England, located in Southeast England on River Thames.
• How is London Nationally important?

  - 13% of the UK's population lives here

  - London generates 22% of UK's GDP

  - Pays almost ⅓ of all the UK tax to the government

  - Home to many leading universities and research facilities