Introduction to Geology for Engineers

• Branches of Geology


  • Historical Geology
  • Physical Geology
  • Environmental Geology
  • Engineering Geology
  • Mining Geology, Petroleum Geology
  • Minerology, Petrology
  • Geomorphology
  • Geophysics, Geochemistry
• Historical Geology


  • The study of the Earth's history and evolution, involving understanding geological processes in the context of time, from the formation of the Earth to the development of its landscapes and life forms
• Branches of Historical Geology


  • Paleontology
  • Stratigraphy
  • Geochronology
• Paleontology


  The study of ancient life through the examination of fossils
• Stratigraphy


  The study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification)
• Geochronology


  The science of determining the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments
• Physical Geology


  • Focuses on the processes currently shaping the Earth's surface and interior, and the materials composing it
• Branches of Physical Geology


  • Volcanology
  • Seismology
• Volcanology


  The study of volcanoes and volcanic eruptions; their processes, dynamics, and characteristics
• Seismology


  The study of earthquakes and the movement of seismic waves through the earth, including sources and effects of earthquakes
• Environmental Geology


  • Applies geological science to address issues affecting the environment and human society, including studying natural hazards, managing natural resources, and understanding human impacts on the Earth
• Engineering Geology


  • Applies geological data, techniques, and principles to the study of rock and soil surfaces for the purpose of engineering design and construction
• Mining Geology


  • Involves the study of the Earth's resources (such as minerals, metals, and fossil fuels) from discovery through to exploitation, including exploration techniques, resource estimation, and sustainable extraction
• Petroleum Geology


  • Focuses on the exploration and extraction of oil and natural gas, integrating sedimentology, structural geology, and stratigraphy to understand the subsurface conditions favorable for oil and gas deposits
• Mineralogy


  The study of minerals, their composition, structure, properties, and the processes that lead to their formation
• Petrology


  The branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form, covering igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks
• Geophysics


  Applies the principles of physics to study the Earth's interior and its physical properties, using techniques like seismic wave analysis, magnetic and gravitational field studies
• Engineering Geology


  • Deals with the application of geology for a safe, stable, and economic design and construction of civil engineering projects
• Application of Engineering Geology


  • Planning
  • Design
  • Construction
• Topographic Maps


  Give details that are essential to understand relative merits and demerits of all the possible sites for the proposed structure, including the presence and nature of slopes, size, contours and depths of valleys and gorges, and rate of change of elevation
• Hydrological Maps


  Give details about the distribution and geometry of the surface water channels and the occurrence and depth contours of ground water below the surface
• Geological Maps


  Depict the petrological characters and structural disposition of rock types as developed in the proposed area, providing useful information regarding the fracturing and displacement that the site rocks might have undergone in the past
• Design in Engineering Geology


  • The application of geological characters and conditions that finally dictate the broad contours of the engineering design, including the existence of hard bed rocks and their depth, mechanical properties, presence and nature of structural weaknesses, position of ground water table, and seismic character of the area
• Construction in Engineering Geology


  • Geological knowledge is applied to the selection and proper use of the right type of materials of construction derived from the natural bedrocks, soils, banks and beaches
• Geology in Water Resources Development


  • Exploration and development of water resources within areas, requiring an understanding of the water cycle in all essential details
• The Earth is commonly described as a spheroid in shape
• Composition of the Earth's Atmosphere (Dry Air)


  • Nitrogen (78.084%)
  • Oxygen (20.946%)
  • Argon (0.934%)
  • Carbon Dioxide (0.033%)
  • Others (0.003%)
• Layers of the Atmosphere


  • Troposphere
  • Stratosphere
  • Mesosphere
  • Thermosphere
• Stratosphere


  The second layer of the atmosphere starting from the tropopause and extending up to an average height of 50km, where the temperature becomes constant for a height of 20km and then starts increasing
• Ozone Layer


  Starts at a height of 9km above the surface and continues up to 35km, with the maximum concentration of ozone at a height of 20-25km
• Mesosphere


  The third thermal zone of the atmosphere which begins at stratopause at about 50km above the surface and continues up to a height of about 80km
• Thermosphere


  The fourth and last zone of the atmosphere, starting at about 80km and extending up to 500km and beyond
• Ionosphere


  A specialized zone that starts from 80km and extends upwards to variable heights, with the most strongly ionized layer located at the base and designated as the D-Layer
• Exosphere


  The region of the atmosphere beyond 700km, a low-density and high temperature region with a minimum atomic collusions
• Lithosphere


  The stony part of the Earth, including the crust and a part of the mantle up to which the material exists in a definite solid state
• Mantle

  The zone within the Earth that starts from the M-discontinuity and continues up to a depth of 2900km, made up of extremely basic material rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica
• Core


  The innermost structural shell of the Earth, starting from a depth of 2900km below the surface and extending right up to the center at a depth of 6370km, with a liquid-like outer core and a solid inner core
• Hydrosphere


  The collective name for all the natural water bodies occurring on or below the surface, with more than 98% made up of saline water in seas and oceans