Psychology: memory

• steps in information processing

  input, encoding, output, retrieval
• input


  - sensory information received from our environment

  - done using the five sense
• encoding


  - turns the sensory information into a form that can be used and stored in the brain

  - done by acoustic encoding, visual encoding and semantic encoding
• output


  information we recall and the resulting behavioural response from our memories
• retrieval


  recalling stored memories
• Briefly describe the multi-store model of memory


  - information is collected in the sensory store

  - when given attention the information then moves to the short term memory

  - with rehearsal the information is encoded to the long term memory

  - if not given attention the information will decay or be displaced or be interfered.
• capacity and duration of sensory store

  split second and very small capacity
• capacity of short term memory

  18 seconds and can hold 7 +-2 pieces of information
• long term memory


  potentially infinite capacity and duration
• Strengths of the multi-store model of memory


  - good understanding of the structure

  - a lot of supporting evidence
• weaknesses of the multi-store model of memory

  - oversimplified

  - overstated the importance of the role of rehearsal
• Overview of Bartlett's theory of reconstructive Memory


  memories are not stored accurately but are notes of what we experience, when we recall these experiences we retrieve the notes and elaborate using general knowledge and similar event.
• schemas


  - a packet of knowledge that influences how we perceive and remember
• ways schemas influence our memories


  omissions, transformations, familiarisation, rationalisation
• omissions


  leaving out unfamiliar information and irrelevant or unpleasant details (during memory)
• transformations


  details that are changed to make them more familiar and rationale
• familiarisation


  changing the unfamiliar to align to our own shcema
• rationalisation


  add details into our recall to give a reason for something that may have not already fitted with our schema
• strengths of Bartletts theory of reconstructive memory


  - real world practical application as it helps us understand why memory can be distorted

  - ecologically valid
• weaknesses of Bartletts theory of reconstructive memory


  - subjective

  - wasn't very scientific in his procedures.
• amnesia


  a condition where patients forget or suffer from memory loss, particularly after brain trauma
• retrograde amnesia


  - where the patient is unable to remember information from before the brain injury

  - it is possible to regain the lost information
• aims of Bartlett War of Ghost

  To test the nature of reconstructive memory, looking at the influence of personal schemas on what is remembered
• procedure of Bartlett War of Ghost

  - Sample: 20 British participants (7 women, 13 men). The participants were not told the aim of the study;

  - Bartlett used repeated reproduction,

  - Native American story called 'The War of the Ghosts' which was unfamiliar to participants

  - Each participant read the story to themselves twice

  - the first reproduction was 15 minutes later, and then between 20 hours and 10 years
• findings of Bartlett War of Ghost

  Used qualitative analysis

  - Repeated reproductions tended to follow a similar form (same story outline)

  - In both recalls, participant tried to make sense of the "odd" story by giving it meaning (rationalisation)

  - Participants left out unfamiliar or unpleasant parts of the story (transformation)

  - 7/20 participants omitted the title of the war ghost story

  - transformation as they changed canoe to boat
• conclusions of Bartlett War of Ghost

  Evidence shows support for the reconstructive memory

  Participants did not recall the story fully or accurately, instead, they omitted details that did not fit with their schema, and some details were altered by the influence of their schema
• strengths of Bartlett War of Ghost

  - Remembering as story is naturalistic giving the study ecological validity
• weaknesses of Bartlett War of Ghost

  - The story was un familiar and contained strange words and concepts (making it not ecological validity)

  - Subjective as he used qualitative analysis

  - Not good controls as the participants could read the story at their own pace without a very standardised procedure.
• aims of Peterson and Peterson

  To test the duration of short term memory
• Procedure of Peterson and Peterson

  24 students were tested individually

  
  

  - Each student was asked to repeat out loud a set of letter that they heard (trigram - 3 consonants)

  - They were asked to say out a loud 3-digit number read to them by the experimenter, then count backward in 3s or 4s from that number

  - Each participant was tested eight times at each of the following six recall intervals: 3 seconds, 6 seconds, 9 seconds, 12 seconds, 15 seconds and 18 seconds..

  
  

  The process was repeated 48 times in total.
• Findings of Peterson and Peterson

  The longer the students had to count backwards the less they were able to recall the trigram.

  
  

  - after 2.83 seconds of counting backwards they remembered 80% of trigrams correctly

  - After 15 seconds of counting backwards they remembered only 10% of trigrams
• Conclusions of Peterson and Peterson

  When unable to rehearse information petersons concluded that information can fade rapidly particularly after 18 seconds
• Strengths of Peterson and Peterson


  - Good control + high reliability: eliminated noise and used fixed timings for participants to count backwards.
• Weaknesses of Peterson and Peterson

  - Possible extraneous variables as the trigrams may have some semantic meaning to the person (ie mothers initials)
• Reductionism


  - Describing something using its basic parts or simplest explanation

  - Ie. If we explain aggressions as a result of a certain gene we can test people with and without the gene and their aggression levels.

  - Redunctionisms is associated with laboratory experiments (factors that may be explain behaviour can be isolated and tested under controlled conditions
• strengths of reductionism

  - useful when there is a clear single explanation with no extraneous variables.
• weaknesses of reductionism


  - Oversimplified information may ignore other factors.
• Holism


  - Considering the whole behaviour rather than its parts, and trying to understand the whole person and what affects them

  - associated with qualitive methods
• strenghts of holism

  - Understand the whole person and the factors

  - Qualitative methods: lots of detailed data as each person is treated as an individual
• weaknesses of holism

  - Focusing on the individuals means the data might not be generalisable

  - Difficult to achieve as you must investigate lots of variables at the same time.