biological approach

• Understanding Consciousness - For

  • Koubeissi (2014) - 54yr old woman with epilepsy - electrode placed near claustrum and it was electrically stimulated she stopped reading and stared blankly and didn’t respond. After, regained consciousness and had no recollection of the event.
  • Can be used to make decisions about patients in a permanent vegetative state.
• Understanding Consciousness - Against

  • The research by Koubessi (2014) used a single ‘abnormal’ case study with a patient who had epilepsy.
  • Just because a patient has currently lost consciousness, does that mean we have the right to withdraw care.
  • The example of Archie Batersbee who was deemed in a vegetative state has his life support machine turned off despite his parents appeals to the courts.
• Treating Criminal Behaviour - For

  • Cherek et al (2002) found that males with a history of criminal behaviour showed a decrease in aggression and impulsiveness after taking an anti-depressant SSRI (compared to a placebo group)
• Treating Criminal Behaviour - Against

  • Farah (2004) if the criminal justice system uses neuroscience to alter the behaviour of prisoners, they are being denied of their individual freedom, i.e. the freedom to exert their free will and think their own thoughts.
  • Raine et al’s (1997) research could result in a person being removed from society or given a compulsory ‘treatment’ purely based on their brain structure.
• Enhancing Neurological Function - For

  • Kadosh et al (2012) found that TDCS led to an improvement in problem solving, mathematical, language and memory capabilities.
  • Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) involves passing a small electrical current across specific parts of the brain through electrodes on the scalp to enhance performance
• Enhancing Neurological Function - Against

  • Although TDCS is fairly cheap, the apparatus is not available to everyone.
  • There are ethical issues with TDCS as there are no licensing rules for practitioners. This means that under-qualified individuals could administer the treatment, which could have serious ethical consequences, such as a high risk of physical harm (brain damage).
• Improving Marketing Techniques - For

  • Neuromarketing has access to our inner thoughts. Wilson (2008) states that this allows advertisers to deliver individualised messages which manipulates our free will.
  • Furthermore there is no current ethical guidelines around this - ‘incidental findings’ may occur eg 5% of cases also found abnormal brain function eg tumour.
• Improving Marketing Techniques - Against

  • Neuromarketing has been developed to reduce social desirability bias and inform researchers of participants' true opinions through the use of various equipment such as eye tracking equipment which shows what really catches someones eye when shopping.
  • Sands research company used this equipment for the highly successful ad ‘The force’ (Volkswagon) which increased sales for the brand.
• Debate - Ethical, Social and Economic Implications

  • Nuffield Trust (2014) points out that since the financial crisis started in 2008 there has been an increase in the amount of antidepressants being prescribed, especially those who are unemployed.
  • Morris (2003) estimated that the total cost of depression in adults in England was 9.1 billion in 2000.
  • Impact on criminals and the judicial system if their brain is abnormal (could be unfairly committed, given medication with a lack of consent ect)t?
• Assumption 1: Evolutionary Influences 


  P: Looks at how the human mind + behaviour have evolved over millions of years and adapted to the demands on the individuals environment.

  E:theory of natural selection explains behaviour through the process of gene selection and the passing of this information to their offspring. Individuals who have the highest chance of survival = more likely to be selected > reproduce passing on their genes to their offspring.
• Assumption 1 - behaviour link

  • An example of this would be biological preparedness our ancestors developed a fear association to possible dangers such as snakes to increase the likelihood of survival.
• Assumption 2: Localisation of brain function

  P: states that certain areas of the brain are responsible for different functions and these impact our behaviours.

  E: example = four lobes in cerebral cortex. frontal lobe= responsible for problem solving, decision making and motor skills. Parietal lobe = sensory processes such as pain, touch and ability to feel temperature. Occipital lobe = interpreting visual stimuli and information such as identifying colours and recognising words. Temporal lobe=auditory information such as interpreting sounds and hearing different languages.
• Assumption 2 - behaviour link

  • An example of this is Phineas Gage who had a metal pole go through his frontal cortex. He lost 11% white brain matter. This changed his behaviour afterwards making him irritable, loose his social awareness by reducing his inhibitions. It was quoted he became a ‘man of bad ways’.
• Assumption 3: Neurotransmitters 


  P: A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger and is used to transfer information from one neuron to another.

  E: process involves the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neurone > neurotransmitters travel down the axon to the axon terminal where they are then released into the synapse. The receptors on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neurone receive the neurotransmitters. This process is repeated over and over across the brain.
• Assumption 3 - behaviour link

  • An example of this would be high levels of dopamine are associated with the positive symptoms of schizophrenia
  • Or
  • Low levels of serotonin are associated with the symptoms of depression.
• Drug Therapy Aims

  • Assumes that psychological disorders such as depression, SZ and anxiety have a physiological cause. Uses the medical model principle by treating mental illness through treating the physical symptoms.
• Drug Therapy Main Components Antipsychotics


  Treat psychotic disorders such as Sz

  • Conventional: reduce levels of dopamine, name: chlorpromazine, These block the action of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain by binding to, but not stimulating the dopamine receptors, can cause motor control disabilities.
  • Atypical: temporarily block dopamine and then more on quickly, less side effects then conventional, clozapine: temporarily bind then rapidly dissociate to allow normal dopamine transmission, decreased side effects increase withdrawal symptoms.
• Drug Therapy - Antidepressant Drugs

  • Treat depression, increase levels of serotonin, name of drug; SSRIs’ - selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, these Block the transporter mechanism that reabsorbs serotonin into the presynaptic cell after it has fired. This creates more serotonin in the synapse. Prolongs its activity making transmission of the next impulse is easier.
• Drug Therapy - Anti anxiety Drugs

  • Treat anxiety, Enhances activity of GABA and lowers levels of adrenalin and noradrenalin, name of drug; benzodiazepines (BZs) such as (librium and valium) and/or beta blockers, BZs facilitate/ support the increase of GABA binding to various GABA receptors throughout the central nervous system.
  • Beta blockers; Beta Blockers bind to receptors on the cells of the heart and other parts of the body. This makes it harder to stimulate cells so the heart beats slower, which lowers blood pressure and results in the individual feeling calmer.
• Drug Therapy Evaluation Effectiveness

  • + Soomro (2009) - reviewed studies comparing SSRIs to placebos for OCD - all 17 studies showed significantly better results for SSRIs. Effectiveness was greatest when combined with CBT
  • + Cheaper the CBT, available on NHS, cheap, accessible
  • + Treats a range of mental illnesses
  • + Historic changes such as typical and atypical antipsychotics- always finding ways to improve outcomes for patients
• Drug Therapy Evaluation Effectiveness 2

  • -Not the root cause, short term rather than long term method. ‘Revolving door syndrome.’
  • -Side effects such as typical = tardive dyskinesia (irregular movement condition) atypical = agranulocytosis (fatal blood disorder) SSRIs - nausea, headaches, insomnia Benzodiazepines - highly addictive, increased aggression, long term memory impairments
• Drug Therapy Evaluation Ethical Considerations

  • Use of placebos and withholding treatment Valid consent- eg SZ do they fully understand Side effects
  • Addictions
  • However did enable individuals to become independent and live in society (SZ) where before they were treated in the mental hospitals.
• Classic Evidence Raine et al Methodology

  • Experiment type; quasi- experiment
  • IV; NGRI or not
  • DV; Brain differences
  • Experiment design; Matched pairs design
  • Total number; 41 murderers
  • Gender; 39 men and 2 woman
  • Referred from the university of California of proof of their diminished capacity Range of mental disorders; SZ, head injury, drug abuse, affective disorder, epilepsy ect
  • How many SZ; 6 (Taken off their medication) Control group;
• Classic Evidence Methodology 2

  • Matched by : Age and gender and 6 SZ who had been taken of medication but was from a metal hospital.
  • All participants had no history of psychiatric illness or any in psychiatric illness in a close relative.
• Classic Evidence Procedures

  • Sampling method used; Opportunity sampling Equipment used; PET scans
  • Standardised procedures
  • Participants practised what at the start of the experiment? P’s were given chance to practise the CPT (Continuous performance task) before receiving the FDG injection
  • 2. How long did p’s start the CPT before given an injection? 30 secs before the injection, p’s start the CPT so that the initial task novelty would not be highlighted
• Classic Evidence Procedures 2

  • 3. How many minutes till the scan took place? 32 minutes after - PET scan takes place
  • 4. How many slides were taken? 10 horizontal slices of the brain are recorded using the cortical peel and
  • box techniques
  • 5. What happened to any medication during the procedures? No p’s were taking medication - control
• Classic Evidence Findings

  • Areas of the brain; prefrontal cortex, amygdala, thalamus, corpus callosum, caudate, putamen, left angular gryus, globus pallidus, mindbrain, hippocampus
  • Which hemisphere had reduced activity in the NGRI individuals? Left hemisphere
  • Reduced activity in NGRI; prefrontal cortex, left angular gryus, corpos callosum, left hemisphere only ( amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus)
  • Which hemisphere had increased activity in the NGRI individuals? Right hemisphere
  • Identify regions of the brain that showed increased activity
• Classic Evidence Findings 2

  • Increased activity in NGRI; cerebellum, right hemisphere (amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus)
  • Identify regions of the brain that showed no difference activity
  • No difference; caudate, putamen, globus pallidus and mindbrain
  • Were NGRI individual brains abnormal due to having symmetrical or asymmetrical brains? Abnormal asymmetries
  • No difference on the CPT
  • Other differences; 6 left handed, 14 NGRI were not white, 23 had minor head injuries
• Classic Evidence Conclusions

  • NGRI have different brain functions to normal individuals
  • Should be reduce behaviour to just brain function?

  1. Neural processes are underlying violence are complex and cannot be reduced to just single brain mechanisms.
  2. What were the four warnings that these results do not show?
  3. Violent behaviour is not determined by biology alone and other factors such as social and cultural factors are also important
• Classic Evidence Conclusions 2 


  4. Murderers pleading NGRI are still responsible for their actions and the use of PET scans cannot be used as a diagnosis

  5. The results do not show brain dysfunction causes violence

  6. The results do not show that violence can be explained by the results.
• Classic Evidence Evaluation Methodology + Procedures

  • PET scans= scientific, controlled, objective, falsifiable, make conclusions about brain differences
  • Quasi experiment= Pre-existing variables not manipulated by the researcher so no casual conclusions, Findings do not show that violent behaviour is determined by biology alone
• Classic Evidence Evaluation Methodology + Procedures 2

  • CPT= artificial task so therefore low ecological validity not true to life
  • Sample not typical of all violent individuals; Cannot claim all violent offenders have such brain dysfunctions. Can only draw conclusions about this type of violent offender - with recognised mental impairment . Crimes were murder - many violent crimes don’t involve murder
• Classic Evidence Evaluation Alternative Evidence

  • Tiihonen (2015) analysed genes of 895 Finnish prisoners and found an association between MAOA gene and increased likelihood of violent crime
  • Yang and Raine (2009)- meta-analysis of 43 imaging studies looking at violent and antisocial behaviour showed significantly reduced prefrontal activity
  • James Fallon= brain of psychopath but isn’t = diathesis stress (genetic predisposition + environmental trigger)
• Classic Evidence Evaluation Ethical + Social Implications

  • Lack of valid consent - NGRI so this suggests they may not have the mental competency to provide fully valid consent
  • Lack of right to withdraw - might not have understood their right to withdraw at any time - especially being prisoners
  • Psychological harm - being diagnosed as abnormal/inferior after scans. Participants were taken off medication. Claustrophobia in the PET scan