Biology

• Inorganic ions and their biological roles


  • Magnesium (Mg2+) - Constituent of chlorophyll and essential for photosynthesis
  • Iron (Fe2+) - Constituent of haemoglobin, which transports oxygen in red blood cells
  • Nitrate (NO3-) - Nitrogen derived from nitrate is needed for making nucleotides, including ATP, DNA and RNA. Nitrogen is also needed for amino acid formation.
  • Phosphate (PO43-) - Used for making nucleotides, including ATP, DNA and RNA. A constituent of phospholipids found in biological membranes. Hardens bones.
  • Calcium (Ca2+) - Hardens bones and teeth (not strengthen). Also a component of plant cell walls.
• Micronutrients


  Minerals needed in minute (trace) concentrations e.g. copper and zinc
• Macronutrients


  Minerals needed in small concentrations e.g. magnesium and iron
• Organic


  Molecules that have a high proportion of carbon and hydrogen atoms
• Inorganic


  A molecule or ion that has no more than one carbon atom
• Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
• Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials within cells.
• Ribosomes are responsible for the production of proteins.
• The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the production and transport of proteins within the cell.
• Vacuoles store water, nutrients, and wastes in plants and some protists.
• Vacuoles store water, nutrients, and wastes inside plant cells.
• Golgi bodies modify, sort, and package proteins produced by ribosomes.
• Mitochondria produce ATP through aerobic respiration.
• Golgi apparatus modifies and packages proteins produced by ribosomes.
• Plasma membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell.
• Mitochondria are organelles found in all eukaryotic cells except red blood cells that generate energy through aerobic respiration.
• Cilia are hair-like structures on the surface of certain cells that move substances across surfaces or create movement.
• Endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein production and lipid transport.
• Ribosomes synthesize proteins using instructions from DNA or mRNA.
• Ribosome is responsible for protein synthesis.
• Cytoplasm is where most chemical reactions occur within the cell.
• Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials within the cell.
• Flagella are long whip-like extensions from the plasma membrane used to propel unicellular organisms such as spermatozoa.
• Vacuoles store water, waste products, pigments, and enzymes involved in digestion.
• Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down large molecules into smaller ones.
• Lysosome contains enzymes to break down waste products inside the cell.
• Ribosome is responsible for synthesizing proteins using genetic information from DNA.
• Ribosomes synthesize proteins using information provided by mRNA.
• Nucleolus produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which combines with proteins to form ribosomes.
• Chromatin consists of chromosomes made up of DNA wrapped around histone proteins.
• Transcription


  The first step in protein synthesis, where the DNA code for a specific protein is copied into a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA).
• Translation


  The second step in protein synthesis, where the mRNA code is "read" by the ribosome, which uses it to build the protein.
• Codon


  A group of three nucleotides in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)


  A type of RNA that carries the genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. Acts as a template for the assembly of a protein chain during protein synthesis.
• Rough ER


  Type of ER covered in ribosomes, which are protein-making factories. Proteins made by the ribosomes are transported into the ER for further processing.
• Smooth ER


  Type of ER that does not have ribosomes and is involved in the production of lipids, carbohydrates, and steroid hormones. It also plays a role in the detoxification of harmful substances in the cell.
• Vesicle transport


  Process by which proteins and other cellular components are transported within the cell from the ER to their final destinations.
• Protein-conducting channel


  The translocon, a protein-conducting channel through which proteins are transported into the ER lumen
• Chaperone proteins


  Proteins that assist in the folding of other proteins into their correct 3D shape inside the ER lumen
• Co-translational transport


  The process by which proteins made by the ribosomes on the ER are transported into the ER lumen through the translocon