ch 4

• Learning


  A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience
• Learning


  • It is an ongoing process which enables us to adapt in the changing world
  • It can be intentional or unintentional
  • It can be active or passive
• Behaviourist approaches to learning


  1. Interaction between an individual and stimuli in the environment

  2. Emphasise the study of observable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning

  3. No regard to underlying mental processes like thoughts, feelings, motives and consciousness
• Conditioning


  A behaviourist approach to learning
• Classical conditioning


  • First described by Ivan Pavlov
  • A simple type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli

  
• Three phase process of classical conditioning


  1. Before conditioning: NS -> irrelevant response, UCS -> UCR

  2. During conditioning: NS repeatedly followed by the UCS -> UCR

  3. After conditioning: CS -> CR
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)


  Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response
• Unconditioned response (UCR)


  The response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented
• Neutral stimulus (NS)


  Any stimulus that before the conditioning does not produce a consistent, predictable response
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)


  The stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process but eventually produces a similar response to that caused by the UCS
• Conditioned response (CR)


  The learned response that is produced by the CS
• Acquisition


  The overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events (NS followed by the UCS over repeated trials) until the NS alone has become the CS that produces the CR
• Factors influencing classical conditioning


  • Nature of the response: UCR must be an automatic or involuntary response
  • Association of stimuli: two stimuli become linked due to contiguity - the formation of an association between two events when they occur close together in time and/or space
  • Timing of the NS and UCS pairing: there should be a very short time between the presentation of the NS followed by the UCS
• Operant conditioning


  A learning process whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood it will be performed again in the future
• Three phase model of operant conditioning


  1. Antecedent: a stimulus that occurs before the behaviour

  2. Behaviour: a voluntary action that occurs

  3. Consequence: the event that occurs after the behaviour which has an impact on the occurrence of the behaviour in the future
• Reinforcement


  Occurs when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows
• Types of reinforcement


  • Positive reinforcement: the addition of a pleasant stimulus which increases or strengthens the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again in the future
  • Negative reinforcement: the removal of an unpleasant stimulus which increases or strengthens the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again in the future
• Punishment


  Occurs when a stimulus weakens or decreases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows
• Types of punishment


  • Positive punishment: the addition of an unpleasant stimulus which decreases or weakens the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again in the future
  • Negative punishment: the removal of a pleasant stimulus which decreases or weakens the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again in the future
• Factors influencing the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment


  • Order of presentation: the consequence must be given after the response is made
  • Timing: use of either reinforcement or punishment is most effective when given immediately after the response has occurred
  • Appropriateness: for any stimulus to be a reinforcer, it must provide a pleasing or satisfying consequence for its recipient; similarly, a punisher must produce an unpleasant consequence
• Social-cognitive approaches to learning


  Emphasise the social context in which learning occurs and the cognitive processes that influence the learner and the learning process
• Observational learning


  • The most prominent social-cognitive theory
  • Through observation, we can learn many behaviours - and classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously (indirectly) through watching others
  • Learning through observation requires important cognitive processes such as attention, mental processing and motivation
  • We can learn through observation but it may remain hidden ("latent") without any immediate change in our behaviour until needed
• Observational learning


  A process involving attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement
• Social cognitive approaches


  • Emphasise the social context in which learning occurs and the cognitive processes that influence the learner and the learning process
• Observational learning


  The most prominent theory in social cognitive approaches
• Through observation, we can learn many behaviours - and classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously (indirectly) through watching others
• Learning through observation


  • Requires important cognitive processes such as attention, mental processing and motivation
• We can learn through observation but it may remain hidden ("latent") without any immediate change in our behaviour until needed
• Observational learning


  Also known as modelling, social learning or vicarious learning
• Key processes in observational learning


  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Reproduction
  • Motivation
  • Reinforcement
• Attention


  • We must actively watch the model's behaviour in order to recognise the distinctive features of the observed behaviour (and its consequences)
  • Influenced by factors such as perceptual capabilities, interest levels, the situation, if any distractors are present, importance of the behaviour, its distinctiveness, future effects on us, and the characteristics of the model
• Attention


  • We pay more attention to models if they are perceived as positively liked or have a high status, if perceived similarities exist between the model and the observer, if the model is familiar to the observer, if the model's behaviour is visible, and if the model demonstrates behaviour that the observer believes they are able to imitate
• Retention


  When the learner forms and stores in their memory a mental representation of the observed behaviour and its consequences
• The more meaningful we make this mental representation, the more accurately we will be able to recall this information when needed
• Reproduction


  We must have the ability to put into practice the observed behaviour, which requires having the potential to be competent enough to develop the necessary skills to imitate the behaviour
• Motivation & Reinforcement


  The learner must want to reproduce the observed behaviour, which is linked to reinforcement - if you believe reproducing the behaviour will produce positive consequences, then you are more likely to carry it out
• Sources of reinforcement


  • The model (e.g. parent praises child)
  • Third-person (e.g. praise from someone other than the model)
  • Vicarious reinforcement (e.g. observing a model receive a reinforcer)
  • Personal/self-reinforcement (sense of pride/achievement)
• Approaches to learning that situate the learner within a system, as illustrated by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing where learning is viewed as being embedded in relationships where the learner is part of a multimodal system of knowledge patterned on Country
• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are the Indigenous peoples of mainland Australia and the Torres Strait islands respectively, and 'Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' is the preferred term over more generic terms like 'Indigenous' or 'First Nations'
• Five key concepts in approaches that situate the learner within a system


  • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
  • Ways of knowing
  • Where learning is embedded in relationships
  • Where the learner is part of a multi-modal system of knowledge
  • Patterned on Country