Component 1

• Structure of bones

  Ligaments connect bones; tendons connect muscles to bones.

  Cartilage provides cushioning at joints.
• Function of bones:

  Support: Maintains body structure and protects organs.

  Movement: Provides attachment points for muscles, enabling movement.

  Protection: Shields vital organs such as brain and heart.

  Mineral Storage: Stores calcium and phosphorus.

  Blood Cell Production: Bone marrow produces blood cells.
• Joint Structure and Function:

  Joints allow movement and flexibility.

  Types include hinge, ball-and-socket, and pivot joints.

  Ligaments provide stability; muscle flexibility influences joint flexibility.

  • Football: Knee joints are crucial for running, kicking, and changing direction on the field.
  • Basketball: Ankle joints support jumps, quick changes in direction, and pivots during gameplay.
  • Boxing: Wrist joints enable punching and glove movement, essential for delivering powerful blows.
• Football:

  Role: Running, kicking, tackling, and jumping require coordinated muscle actions.

  Muscle Actions:

  Quadriceps and hamstrings contract for kicking and running.

  Gastronemius contract for jumping and acceleration.

  Core muscles stabilize the body during tackles and changes in direction.
• Swimming:

  Role: Propelling through water with efficiency and speed.

  Muscle Actions:

  Latissimus dorsi and deltoids initiate arm movement during strokes.

  Quadriceps and gluteal muscles drive kicking motions.

  Core muscles provide stability and streamline the body.
• Tennis:

  Role: Generating power and precision in shots while covering the court.

  Muscle Actions:

  Pectoralis major and triceps contract during the serve and overhead shots.

  Quadriceps and gluteal muscles aid in lateral movement and quick changes in direction.
• Gymnastics:

  Role: Performing intricate maneuvers with strength, flexibility, and balance.

  Muscle Actions:

  Deltoids and trapezius muscles stabilize the shoulders during handstands and flips.

  Quadriceps and hamstring muscles generate power for jumps and flips.

  Abdominal and back muscles support spinal alignment and body control.
• Cycling:

  Role: Generating speed and endurance while maintaining control on various terrains.

  Muscle Actions:

  Quadriceps and hamstrings drive the pedaling motion for propulsion.

  Gluteal muscles stabilize the hips and pelvis during pedaling.

  Core muscles maintain posture and stability on the bike.
• Cartilage examples: 

  Cycling:

  • Cartilage in knees acts as a shock absorber, aiding endurance and preventing overuse injuries during cycling.

  Football: 

  • Cartilage in knee joints cushions impact during tackles and allows smooth movement for running and turning
• Mechanical advantage refers to the ratio of the load (resistance) force to the effort (force) applied in a simple machine. It indicates how much easier or harder a machine makes it to perform a task compared to doing it without the machine.

  •  can be calculated as the ratio of the output force (load) to the input force (effort).
• Transverse Plane:

  Axis of Movement: Longitudinal axis

  Movement: Rotation

  Eg: Golf Swing, Tennis Backhand: 

  
• Frontal Plane:

  Axis of Movement: Frontal axis

  Movement: Abduction and adduction

  Eg: Side Lunge, Dumbbell Shoulder Raise

  
• Sagittal Plane:

  Axis of Movement: transverse axis

  Movement: Flexion and extension

  Eg: Tennis Serve: Bicep Curl:

  
• muscles of body

  
• bones

  
• cardiovascular System:

  • Double Circulatory System: Blood flows twice through the heart for efficient oxygenation and circulation.
  • Different Blood Vessels: Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, veins return deoxygenated blood to the heart, and capillaries facilitate exchange of gases and nutrients.
• cardiovascular System: (2)

  Pathway of Blood through the Heart: Blood enters the heart through the right atrium, passes to the right ventricle, is pumped to the lungs for oxygenation, returns to the left atrium, passes to the left ventricle, and is pumped to the body.
• Stroke Volume: The amount of blood ejected by the heart with each contraction.
• Cardiac Output: The volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute.
• Heart Rate: The number of heartbeats per minute.
• Respiratory System:

  Pathway of Air: Air enters through the nose or mouth, passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, reaching the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.

  • Role of Respiratory Muscles: Diaphragm and intercostal muscles expand and contract the chest cavity, facilitating inhalation and exhalation.
• Respiratory Function:

  Breathing Rate: The number of breaths taken per minute.

  Tidal Volume: The volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a single breath.

  Minute Ventilation: The total volume of air moved in and out of the lungs per minute.
• Gaseous Exchange:

  Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
• Aerobic Exercise: Physical activity performed at a moderate intensity for an extended period, relying on oxygen for energy production (e.g., jogging, swimming, long-distance running, cycling).
• Anaerobic Exercise: High-intensity physical activity performed in short bursts, relying on non-oxygen energy sources (e.g., sprinting, weightlifting).
• Short-Term Effect of exercise: 

  Increased Heart Rate: During exercise, heart rate rises to supply more oxygenated blood to working muscles.

  Increased Breathing Rate: Breathing rate increases to meet the demand for oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.
• Short-Term Effect of exercise: Vasodilation: Blood vessels dilate to increase blood flow to muscles, delivering oxygen and nutrients.

  Increased Body Temperature: Exercise generates heat, raising body temperature and promoting muscle flexibility.
• Short-Term Effect of exercise: 

  Release of Endorphins: Exercise triggers the release of endorphins, chemicals that reduce pain perception and induce feelings of well-being
• Long-Term Effects of exercise 

  Increased Cardiovascular Efficiency: Regular exercise strengthens the heart and improves circulation, reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.

  Improved Lung Function: Regular aerobic exercise enhances lung capacity and efficiency, increasing oxygen intake and reducing breathlessness.
• Long-Term Effects of exercise:

  Increased Muscle Strength and Endurance: Exercise stimulates muscle growth and improves muscular endurance, enhancing overall physical performance.

  Weight Management: Regular exercise helps maintain a healthy body weight by burning calories and increasing metabolism.

  Improved Mental Health: Exercise has long-term benefits for mental well-being, reducing stress, anxiety, and depression.
• Short-Term Effects exercise:

  Eg: Sprinting

  • Increased heart rate and breathing rate to meet the demand for oxygen during the sprint.

  Eg:  Weightlifting

  • Short-Term Effect: Vasodilation in muscles to increase blood flow and deliver nutrients for energy production.
• Long-Term Effects exercise:

  eg: Marathon Running

  • Increased cardiovascular efficiency and lung capacity from consistent aerobic training.

  Eg: Strength Training

  • Improved muscle strength and endurance through progressive resistance training.
• Data related to short and long-term effects of exercise can be collected through various methods, including:

  Heart rate monitoring during exercise sessions.

  Recording changes in breathing rate and perceived exertion.

  Measuring improvements in cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength through fitness tests.

  Tracking changes in body composition and weight over time.

  Surveys or questionnaires to assess changes in mental well-being and overall health perception.
• Principles of Training:

  Overload: To improve fitness, the body must be subjected to a greater workload than it is used to.

  • Eg: Increasing the weight lifted in strength training or running longer distances to improve cardiovascular endurance.

  Progression: The workload should be gradually increased to avoid injury and allow the body to adapt.

  • Eg: Gradually increasing the intensity, duration, or frequency of exercise over time.
• Principles of Training: (2)

  Specificity: Training should be specific to the sport or activity to achieve desired outcomes.

  • bEg:  Sprinters focus on explosive speed training, while long-distance runners emphasise endurance training.

  Reversibility: Fitness gains are lost when training stops or intensity decreases.

  • Eg: Endurance gained from regular running is lost if running is stopped for an extended period.
• FITT Principle:

  Frequency: How often you exercise (e.g., number of sessions per week).

  Intensity: How hard you exercise (e.g., percentage of maximum heart rate).

  Time: How long you exercise (e.g., duration of each session).

  Type: The specific type of exercise or activity performed (e.g., running, cycling, swimming).
• Warm up 

  Pulse raiser Exercise (e.g., jogging or skipping).

  Dynamic Stretching (e.g., leg swings or arm circles).

  Sport-Specific Movements (e.g., practising shots or passes).

  Benefits:

  • Increases heart rate and blood flow to muscles.
  • Raises body temperature, enhancing muscle flexibility and performance.
  • Prepares the body mentally for exercise by focusing attention and increasing arousal levels.
• Cool down 

  Gentle Aerobic Exercise (e.g., brisk walking or easy cycling).

  Static Stretching (e.g., holding stretches for major muscle groups).

  Rehydration and Refueling (e.g., drinking water and consuming carbohydrates).

  Benefits:

  • Helps prevent blood pooling and dizziness by gradually reducing heart rate.
  • Facilitates removal of waste products (e.g., lactic acid) from muscles, reducing soreness.
  • Promotes flexibility and prevents muscle stiffness and injury.
• types of Training:

  Aerobic: Continuous, moderate-intensity exercise for cardiovascular endurance.

  Anaerobic: High-intensity, short-duration exercise for power and speed.
• Minmise Risk of Injury: (1)

  Proper Warm-Up and Cool-Down:

  Warm-up: Prepares the body for exercise by increasing heart rate, blood flow, and muscle flexibility.

  Cool-down: Helps reduce heart rate gradually, removes waste products from muscles, and prevents stiffness.