psch

• Sensory register


  The first store which holds the sensory information received through all the senses for a brief period of time. Examples include iconic (visual) and echoic (sound) memory.
• Short-term memory


  The memory for immediate events. These memories tend not to last for more than a minute or two, usually shorter, and disappear unless they are rehearsed. Capacity is limited to 7 plus or minus 2 individual items.
• Long-term memory


  The memory for past events that can last for the life-time of a person. Its capacity is most probably unlimited
• Multi-store model of memory (MSM)


  • Information flows through a number of storage systems in a linear fashion (in a line)
  • There are three main storage systems which are unitary (each a single unit)
  • Each store differs in terms of coding, capacity, and duration
  • Information can remain in short-term memory by maintenance rehearsal, and prolonged rehearsal (sometimes called elaborative rehearsal) will create a long term memory
  • The more information is rehearsed, the better it is remembered
  • Information can be lost from each store, but in different ways

  
• Types of Long-Term memory


  • Episodic
  • Semantic
  • Procedural

  
• Working Memory Model


  • Central executive
  • Phonological loop
  • Visuo-spatial sketchpad
  • Episodic buffer
  • Features: coding and capacity

  
• Explanations for Forgetting


  • Proactive interference
  • Retroactive interference
  • Retrieval failure due to absence of cues
• Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)


  • Misleading information
  • Leading questions
  • Post-event discussion
  • Anxiety
• Cognitive interview


  A technique used to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
• Sensory register


  • Capacity: Very large, highly detailed and ever-changing
  • Duration: Iconic memory up to 0.5 seconds, echoic memory up to 3 seconds
  • Coding: Very little, information enters in raw sensory form

  
• Short-term memory


  • Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items
  • Duration: 15-30 seconds (can be extended by rehearsal)
  • Coding: Mainly acoustic, some visual and semantic

  
• Long-term memory


  • Capacity: Unlimited
  • Duration: Lifetime
  • Coding: Semantic

  
• Rehearsal is important for transferring information from short-term to long-term memory
• After 3 seconds 90% of the trigrams were recalled, but after 18 seconds only 5% of the trigrams were recalled. Therefore it was concluded that information is lost rapidly from STM when there is no opportunity for repetition. Without repetition, STM lasts for little longer than 18 seconds. (most textbooks refer to 15-30 seconds duration)
• Coding


  The way information is represented in memory

  
• In short term memory (STM) it is widely accepted that the coding is mainly acoustic
• When a person is presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to hold them in STM by rehearsing them (verbally)
• Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of items is presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or visually (on a sheet of paper)
• It is also recognised that visual coding does occur in STM, as does some semantic coding
• Baddeley(1966) study


  1. Participants divided into groups

  2. Given different lists of words to learn

  3. In the short term memory condition they had to recall the words in the correct order immediately after hearing them
• Long term memory (LTM)


  Memory store that has a very large capacity and can last a lifetime
• The capacity in LTM is generally accepted to be unlimited. Therefore, no matter how much information is stored long-term, the store never becomes full
• Standing et al. (1970) study


  1. Participants given a single presentation of a sequence of 2560 photographs for 5 or 10 seconds per picture

  2. Even after 36 hours, participants could identify the correct photo when paired with a new scene approximately 90% of the time
• Duration of LTM


  • Dependent on the person's life span, as memories can last up to a life-time
  • Information that is processed at a deep level is likely to be remembered for longer
  • Memories based on skills rather than facts tend to be remembered better
• Bahrick et al. (1975) study


  1. Sample of 392 American ex-high school students aged from 17-74 studied

  2. Asked to remember the names of their classmates (free recall)

  3. Shown faces and names of classmates and asked if they recognised them

  4. Accuracy of participants recall assessed using their high-school year-books
• It is widely acknowledged that information is coded semantically in LTM, especially for verbal information. This means that information is stored in LTM when it has meaning or in other words, some relevance or importance to us
• However, there is some evidence for both visual and acoustic encoding in LTM
• Baddeley (1966) study


  1. Participants divided into groups

  2. Given different lists of words to learn

  3. In the long term memory condition they had to recall the words in the correct order 20 minutes after hearing them
• Working Memory Model (WMM)


  Explanation of conscious thought happening 'now'

  
• Central Executive


  • Directs attention to particular tasks, determining how the brain's resources are allocated to tasks
  • Attends and monitors incoming information from the senses or LTM and this information is then sent to the other slave systems for processing and temporary storage
  • Has very little capacity so it cannot attend to too many things at once, and it has no capacity for storing data
• Phonological Loop


  • Has a limited capacity and its function is to store speech-based sounds for brief periods
  • Phonological store allows acoustically coded items to be stored for brief periods
  • Articulatory control process allows sub vocal repetitions of items in phonological store, similar to maintenance rehearsal
• Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad


  • Processes and stores mental images in terms of what they look like and their place in the visual field
  • Independent from the phonological loop, and has a limited capacity
  • Used when planning spatial tasks
• Episodic Buffer


  • General store that allows both sound and visual information to be bound together
  • Integrates information from the other systems and also offers a sense of time sequencing
  • Records events (episodes) that are happening and sends information to LTM
  • Has a limited capacity
• The original concept of the central executive has not been fully explained by the WMM
• Working Memory Model (WMM)


  Attempts to explain how memory functions, as opposed to simply describing the structure of memory

  
• Knowledge of the phonological loop and its role in the development of reading in children has led to a better understanding of dyslexia
• The development of the working memory model has led to tangible benefits for dyslexic students, which the multi-store model did not

  
• Attention Deficit hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

  Thought to be linked with impairments with working memory
• Methods to help children with ADHD focus on tasks


  • Use brief and simple instructions so they don't forget what they are doing
  • Break instructions down into individual steps
  • Frequently repeat instructions
• The development of the working memory model has clear practical applications that help children, showing the value of the model