Exam 1

• Anatomy


  The study of structures of living organisms
• Ways to study anatomy

  • Gross anatomy - studying macroscopic structures (e.g. dissection, palpation, auscultation etc.)
  • Microscopic anatomy - studying structures that can not be seen by the naked eye (e.g. cytology, histology, etc.)
• Physiology


  The study of function of living organisms
• Functions can happen either


  • Physically (electrical currents, pressure, movement)
  • Chemical (creating or breaking of chemical bonds)
• Functions will always reflect structure. What a structure can do will depend on its specific form.
• Levels of Organization

  • Chemical: atoms and molecules (Ex: Ions, Carbohydrates, DNA, RNA, Proteins, Lipids, etc.)
  • Cellular: Organelles and Cells (Ex: Mitochondria, Nuclei, Lysosomes, Vesicles, etc. Ex: Epithelial cell, skeletal muscle cell, neurons, RBCs, etc.)
  • Tissue: Group of similar cells working together (Muscular, epithelial, nervous, ground)
  • Organ: Two or more tissue types working together (Ex: Bone, Small intestine, Skeletal muscle)
  • Organ system: organs that work closely together for a common purpose
  • Organismal: All organ systems working together
• Necessary Life Functions

  • Maintain boundaries
  • Contractility (movement)
  • Responsiveness
  • Digestion
  • Metabolism
  • Excretion
  • Reproduction
  • Growth & Repair
• Survival Needs


  • Nutrients (Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins)
  • Oxygen
  • Water
  • Appropriate body temperature, pH and osmolarity
  • Appropriate atmospheric pressure
• Homeostasis


  Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite the unstable changes in the external environment
• Homeostasis is a dynamic state of equilibrium, constantly adapting and altering internal factors in response to external factors
• Homeostasis involves continuous monitoring and regulation of


  • Temperature, pH, osmolarity, CO2, glucose levels, etc.
• Components of a control mechanism

  • Receptors - a structure that is receptive to some sort of stimulus
  • Control center - receives input from the receptor and determines the appropriate response
  • Effector - Receives output from control center and provides the appropriate response
• Negative feedback


  Response that decreases the initial stimulus and ultimately decreases the response
• Positive feedback


  Response that increases the initial stimulus and ultimately increases the response (snow ball effect)
• Homeostatic imbalance can result in disease and damage, and may result in feedback mechanisms spiraling out of control
• Organ Systems


  • Integumentary
  • Skeletal
  • Muscular
  • Nervous
  • Endocrine
  • Cardiovascular
  • Lymphatic
  • Respiratory
  • Digestive
  • Urinary (Renal)
  • Reproductive
• Body cavities

  Chambers or 'openings' in the body that house many of our internal organs
• Serosa


  A double layer membrane that protects and cradles our internal organs
• Parietal serosa


  The tissue membrane layer that is attached to the cavity walls
• Visceral serosa


  The tissue membrane layer that directly touches the organ
• Serous fluid


  A liquid that fills the space (serous cavity) between the parietal and visceral serosa
• Cytology


  The study of cell biology
• Cells are the base unit of life, capable of physical and metabolic processes necessary for survival
• Metabolism


  Term for all biochemical reactions in a living organism
• Types of chemical reactions

  • Decomposition reaction (catabolic) - Breaking of chemical bonds to separate larger molecules into smaller molecules or atoms
  • Synthesis reaction (anabolic) - Creating chemical bonds to join smaller molecules and atoms into larger molecules
  • Exchange reaction - when atom, molecule or electrons are exchanged between two chemical structures
• Reduction - Oxidation Reaction (redox)


  A type of exchange reaction that involves the transfer of electrons between one chemical structure to another
• Reduction


  Gain an electron (reducing in charge)
• Oxidation


  Loss of an electron
• Major molecules of the cell


  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic acids
  • Phospholipids
• Carbohydrates


  Molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, source of energy for cells and involved in cell signaling and recognition
• Lipids


  A diverse group of molecules that are insoluble in water, play a crucial role in storing energy, insulating the body, and forming the cell membrane
• Proteins


  Large, complex molecules made up of amino acids, most diverse in function (enzymes, structure, transport, cell signaling, etc.)
• Nucleic acids


  Including DNA and RNA, store and transmit genetic information, used to direct the synthesis of proteins and other molecules in the cell
• Enzyme


  Proteins that catalyze (speed up) chemical reactions, not used up in the reaction, contain a highly specialized active site
• Cofactor


  A nonprotein molecule that help an enzymatic reaction occur
• Types of cofactors

  • Inorganic cofactors - attach to enzymes and are required for them to function
  • Organic cofactors (AKA coenzymes) - Do not directly attach to enzymes but must be present for enzymes to function
• Membrane transporters


  Proteins (channels, gates and pumps) that selectively allow atoms or molecules to pass through the plasma membrane
• Blood transport proteins


  Proteins that carry atoms and molecules in blood that are either insoluble or dangerous on their own
• Protein receptors


  Proteins that bind to an atom or molecule and initiates a cellular response
• Hormone


  Chemical messenger that is carried in the blood