Lesson 6 & 7

• Geological hazards


  Landslides and sinkholes
• Types of Geologic Hazards


  • Landslide
  • Sinkhole
• Landslide


  Refers to the ground movement on a sloping terrain or downward sliding of huge quantities of land mass
• Factors affecting landslide


  • Slope range
  • Climate
  • Weathering
  • Water content
  • Vegetation
  • Overloading
  • Slope stability
  • Geology
  • Human Activities
• Basic Types of Landslides


  • Rock Falls
  • Rock Topples
  • Rock Slides
  • Debris Flows
  • Earthflow
  • Mudflow
• Rock Falls


  Abrupt movements of masses such as rocks and boulders that become detached from the steep slopes or cliffs
• Rock Topples


  Toppling failures are distinguished by the forward rotation of a unit
• Rock Slides


  Slide in which the surface rupture may move almost vertically downward, and the upper surface of the displaced material may tilt backward toward the scarp
• Debris Flows


  A form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose soil, rock, organic, matter, air, and water flows downslope
• Earthflow


  The slope material liquefies and runs out, forming a bowl or depression at the head and having the characteristic "hourglass shape"
• Mudflow


  Consists of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly and that contains at least 50% sand
• Sinkhole


  Depressions or holes on the ground that resulted from the collapse of the surface layer of to soil
• How sinkholes form


  1. Dissolution or solution sinkholes

  2. Cover collapse sinkholes

  3. Cover subsidence sinkholes
• Dissolution or solution sinkholes


  Type of sinkholes where there is little soil or vegetation over limestone and bedrock
• Cover collapse sinkholes


  Occur when a solution cavity develops in the limestone to such size that the overflying cover material can no longer support its weight
• Cover subsidence sinkholes


  Occur when the cover material is relatively cohesive and permeable, the individual grains of sand move downward in sequence to replace grains that have already moved downward to replace dissolved limestone
• Human activities that causes sinkholes
• Why sinkholes considered as hazardous
• Signs of Impending Landslides


  • Springs, water seepage, or water wet
  • Soil that loosens and moves away from foundations
  • New cracks or unusual bulges on cemented ground or walls
  • Underground utility lines that are broken due to vibrations or tremors from the surface of the ground
  • Buildings, poles, walls and fences that are leaning
  • Sudden rapid flow of creek waters carrying more silted water
• Signs of Impending Sinkholes


  • Groundwater that does not provide the same amount and quality as before or has become cloudy, acidic, silted, or soiled
  • Sign posts or poles that are suddenly leaning, slumping, sagging, slanting, or bent
  • Ponds that have recently formed or puddles that grow or have never disappeared
• Precautionary Measures in Case of a Landslide


  1. Before a Landslide

  2. During a Landslide

  3. After a Landslide
• Precautionary Measures in Case of a Sinkhole


  1. If sinkholes are not detected earlier and it appears suddenly

  2. After a sinkhole's Appearance
• Fire


  The process of rapid oxidation of any material at an elevated temperature which produces smoke, heat, and light resulting in burning
• Fire Triangle


  • A model that shows the three essential components that when present together can start a fire and sustain it – fuel, heat, and oxygen
• Fire Tetrahedron


  • The fourth component is the chain of CHEMICAL REACTIONS necessary to create fire. This 4th component paved the way for the concept of the Fire Tetrahedron.
• Stages of Fire


  • Ignition Phase
  • Growth Phase or Incipient Phase
  • Fully-developed Phase or Free-burning Phase
  • Decay Phase or Burnout Phase
• Ignition Phase


  When all four elements of the fire tetrahedron merge/join together, the fuels reach their ignition temperature, and the fire begins
• Growth Phase or Incipient Phase


  The fire increases fuel consumption and creates more heat and smoke
• Fully-developed Phase or Free-burning Phase


  Occurs when the maximum amount of fuel and oxidizers are consumed, and the highest heat release rate is produced
• Decay Phase or Burnout Phase

  Temperature decreases and intensity is reduced which happens when the available fuel has been consumed
• Fire extinguisher


  An external fire safety system useful to extinguish or control minor fires, often in emergency cases
• Burns


  Tissue injuries caused by heat, electricity, radiation and chemicals
• Classification of Burns


  • Fourth-degree burns
  • Third-degree burns
  • Second-degree burns
  • First-degree burns
• Fourth-degree burns


  • The deepest and most severe of burns. They're potentially life-threatening. These burns destroy all layers of your skin, as well as your bones, muscles, and tendons
• Basic Response Procedures during Fire Incidents


  1. Find an area where smoke has not yet reached. If there is a lot of smoke, stay low and crawl on your hands and knees. Do not panic as this will keep you disoriented and make you lose your focus

  2. Evacuate the area or room by going to the nearest exit. If you are not familiar with the building's layout, follow the arrows or directions that lead to the exit

  3. While evacuating the room, leave it closed to prevent the entry of smoke. Do not lock the door to allow others to escape in the same route or passage

  4. If you can, assist people with special needs, but do not carry them downstairs. Going down with a load may impede an immediate escape. Notify emergency personnel if you know or suspect someone is still inside the building

  5. Do not use the elevators. Use the stairs to get out of the building

  6. Do not attempt to go back inside the building until it has been declared safe by the fire department
• If your clothes catch fire


  Do not panic or run. Do the stop, drop, and roll method. Stop immediately or stay where you are
• In assisting people who are burnt


  1. Do not attempt to remove the clothing. In second- to third-degree burns, clothes may stick to the skin, and removing the clothes may aggravate the injury and expose the skin more to infection. If clean cotton cloth or gauze is available, use it to carefully cover the burned area

  2. Do not attempt to treat a third-degree burn on your own. Bring the burn victim to the hospital or call for medical assistance immediately. While help is on its way, elevate the burned part above the level of the victim's heart. Do not undress the victim, and do not move clothing that was stuck to the burn

  3. Do not soak or immerse burns in cold water, apply ice or ice water, or apply any ointment. Do not put butter or oil directly on the burned area. Do not break blisters that form over the burn. Burns are open wounds that require aeration for faster healing. Cold water may temporarily stop bleeding and reduce some pain, but it can extend the damage of the burnt area. These things may cause more damage to the burned parts

  4. Check vital signs such as breathing and blood circulation. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) might be necessary
• Fire evacuation plan


  • The contact number of government agencies such as the local fire departments should be made known
  • The occupants of the building should know how and where to report an emergency
  • The proper authority will know how to assess the situation and address it
  • Occupants of the building should be made aware of emergency routes and exits
  • All operators should be reminded of safe shutdown procedures for equipment and facilities to prevent any damage or additional hazard
  • All written emergency plans should always be updated, maintained, and tried on a regular basis
  • A building's emergency evacuation layout plan should be posted conspicuously to constantly remind the members of the building of the proper procedure for emergencies