AQA A-level Psychology - Psychopathology

• Statistical Infrequency


  Abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare
• Deviation from Social Norms


  Concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society
• Failure to Function Adequately


  Occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day living. If they can't do this and are also experiencing distress (or others are distressed by their behaviour) then it is considered a sign of abnormality.
• Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

  Occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health. Ideal mental health would include a positive attitude towards the self, resistance to stress and an accurate perception of reality.
• What did Jahoda (1958) suggest


  That we should define mental health by looking at the absence of signs of mental health.
• Jahoda's categories of Ideal Mental Health

  Self attitudes - having high self esteem and a strong sense of identity

  Personal growth and self actualisation - the extent to which an individual develops their full capabilities

  Integration - being able to cope with stressful situations

  Autonomy - being independent and self-regulating

  Having an accurate perception of reality

  Mastery of the environment - including the ability to love, function at work and in interpersonal relationships, adjust to new situations and solve problems
• Limitations of Statistical Infrequency

  - some abnormal behaviours are desirable

  - the cut off point is subjective

  - cultural relativism (behaviours that are statistically infrequent in some cultures are common in others - hearing voices as a symptom of schizophrenia)
• Strengths of Statistical Infrequency

  - sometimes appropriate (intellectual disability is measured by the standard deviations of IQ - is more than 2 deviations below average then classed as mentally disabled)

  - objective
• Limitations of Deviation from Social Norms

  - susceptible to abuse (what's normal not may not always have been which means there is a danger of creating definitions based on prevailing social morals and attitudes)

  - deviance is related to context and degree (wearing nothing at the beach is acceptable but not in public, shouting isn't evidence of mental disturbance unless done excessively)

  - cultural relativism (classification systems are usually based on the social norms of western cultures)
• Strengths of Deviation from Social Norms

  - able to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviour
• Limitations of Failure to Function Adequately

  - judgement depends on who's making the decision

  - behaviour may be functional but can be a mental disorder (eating disorders, depression etc.)

  - cultural relativism
• Strengths of Failure to Function Adequately

  - recognises the subjective experience of the patient (sensitivity and practicality)
• Limitations of Ideal Mental Health

  - unrealistic criteria

  - criteria are difficult to measure

  - tries to apply the principles of physical health to mental health (cannot be diagnosed the same, mental disorders don't always have physical causes)

  - cultural relativism
• Strengths of Ideal Mental Health

  - positive outlook

  - influence on the humanistic approach (positive psychology movement)
• Phobias


  A group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or group of stimuli. The anxiety interferes with normal living
• Depression


  A mood disorder where an individual feels sad and/or lacks interest in their usual activities. Further characteristics include irrational negative thoughts, raised or lowered activity levels and difficulties with conversation, sleep and eating
• OCD


  An anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsessions (persistent thoughts) and compulsions (repeated behaviours). Compulsions are a response to obsessions and the person believed the compulsions will reduce anxiety
• Emotional Characteristics of Phobias

  - marked and persistent fear that is likely to be excessive and unreasonable

  - anxiety and panic

  - emotions are cued by the presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation

  - out of proportion to the actual danger posed
• Behavioural Characteristics of Phobias

  - avoidance

  - fight, flight or freeze

  - avoidance interferes with the person's normal routine, occupation, social activities or relationships

  - phobias are distinguished from everyday fears because they don't interfere with normal day-to-day living
• Cognitive Characteristics of Phobias

  - the irrational nature of the person's thinking

  - resistance to rational arguments

  - person recognises the fear is excessive or unreasonable

  - the recognition may be absent in children

  - recognition distinguishes phobias from a delusional mental illness such as schizophrenia
• Emotional Characteristics of Depression

  - sadness

  - loss of interest or pleasure in normal activities

  - feeling empty

  - worthlessness

  - hopelessness

  - low self-esteem

  - despair

  - lack of control

  - anger
• Behavioural Characteristics of Depression

  - shift in activity level (reduced or increased)

  - reduced energy

  - tiredness

  - increased agitation

  - restlessness

  - affected sleep

  - affected appetite
• Cognitive Characteristics of Depression

  - negative emotions are associated with negative thoughts, such as negative self-concept, guilt, worthlessness etc

  - often have a negative view of the world and expect things to turn out badly

  - such negative thoughts are usually irrational
• Emotional Characteristics of OCD

  - anxiety

  - distress

  - embarrassment

  - shame

  - disgust
• Behavioural Characteristics of OCD

  - compulsions are repetitive and unconcealed but may be mental acts like praying or counting

  - patients are compelled to complete the acts otherwise something bad might happen leading to anxiety

  - behaviours aren't connected in a realistic way with what they're trying to neutralise or prevent and are clearly excessive

  - some patients experience compulsions with no particular obsessions (e.g. compulsively avoiding certain objects)
• Cognitive Characteristics of OCD

  - obsessions are recurrent, intrusive thoughts or impulses that are seen as inappropriate or forbidden

  - obsessions can be frightening and/or embarrassing so the person doesn't want to share them with others

  - common obsessional themes include ideas, doubts, impulses and images

  - seen as uncontrollable which creates anxiety

  - person recognises that obsessions are a product of their own mind

  - at some point during the disorder the person does recognise that the obsessions or compulsions are excessive or unreasonable
• According to the mental health charity, how many people in the UK experience a mental health problem each year?

  1 in 4
• What percentage of the UK population were experiencing clinical phobias in 2009?

  2.6%
• What percentage of the UK population were experiencing clinical depression in 2009?

  2.6%
• What percentage of the UK population were experiencing clinical OCD in 2009?

  1.3%
• What makes a clinical disorder different from a general disorder?

  Clinical disorders will significantly affect a person's day-to-day life over an extended period of time
• Flooding


  A form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. A client is exposed to (or imagines) an extreme form of the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished
• Systematic Desensitisation


  A form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. A client is gradually exposed to (or imagines) the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished
• Flooding - Rationale


  A person's fear response and the release of adrenaline underlying this has a time limit. As adrenaline levels naturally decrease, a new stimulus-response link can be learned - the feared stimulus is now associated with a non-anxious response
• Flooding - Steps


  1. Patient taught how to relax their muscles completely

  2. Patient masters the feared situation that caused them to seek help in the first place. This is accomplished in one session
• Systematic Desensitisation - Counterconditioning


  - The basis of the therapy is counterconditioning because the patient is taught a new association that runs counter to the original association

  - The patient is taught through classical conditioning to associate the phobic stimulus with a new response (i.e. relaxation instead of fear). In this way, their anxiety is reduced - they are desensitised

  - Wolpe also called this 'reciprocal inhibition' because the relaxation response inhibits the anxiety response
• Systematic Desensitisation - Relaxation


  - The first thing the therapist does is teach the patient relaxation techniques

  - Can be achieved by taking slow deep breaths

  - Being mindful of the here and now can help

  - Focussing on a particular object

  - Visualising a peaceful scene

  - Progressive muscle relaxation (one muscle at a time)
• Systematic Desensitisation - Desensitisation hierarchy

  - Gradually introducing the patient to the feared situation one step at a time so it's not too overwhelming

  - At each stage the patient practises relaxation so the situation becomes more familiar and less overwhelming and their anxiety diminishes
• Systematic Desensitisation - Steps

  1. Patient is taught how to relax their muscles completely (a relaxed state is incompatible with anxiety)

  2. Therapist and patient together construct a desensitisation hierarchy - a series of imagined scenes, each one causing a little more anxiety than the previous one

  3. Patient gradually works their way through desensitisation hierarchy, visualising each anxiety-evoking event while engaging in the competing relaxation response

  4. Once the patient has mastered one step in the hierarchy (they can remain relaxed while visualising it), they are ready to move on to the next

  5. Patient eventually masters the feared situation that caused them to seek help in the first place
• Strengths of Flooding


  - Can be an effective treatment for those who stick with it

  - Relatively quick compared to CBT

  - Choy et al. reported that flooding was more successful at treating phobias than SD

  - Better implications for the economy

  - Less time consuming