learning and memory

• behaviourist approaches


  behaviourist approaches to learning are theories that propose learning occurs directly by interacting with the external environment.
• what is conditioning?


  the process of how learning occurs through associations between stimulus and a behaviour response.

  learning or conditioning occurs through repeated association of two different stimuli.
• classical conditioning 


  type of learning where organisms come to associate stimuli, and consequently, to anticipate ad event.

  a type of conditioning that involves learning that two events are associated after we experience them occurring together on a number of occasions.
• characteristics of classical conditioning 


  nature of response: reflexive and involuntary response to stimuli

  timing of stimulus and response: stimulus comes before the response is made, meaning something must be presented before a response is made.

  role of learner: be passive, learner does not need to apply effort for two stimulus to be come associated.
• ivan pavlov 


  explored the digestion in dogs - the role of salivation as a reflex and the response to the presentation of food.
• elements of classical conditioning 


  neutral stimulus (NS) - does not produce a predicate response

  unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- stimulus that produces(naturally) occurring automatic response

  unconditioned response (UCR)- the response that automatically occurs when the UCS is presented

  conditioned stimulus (CS)- a stimulus that becomes associated with the UCS over a repeated amount of time (was once the NS)

  conditioned response (CR)- the learned response due to the conditioned stimulus (was once the UCR)
• 3-phase model of classical conditioning

  phase 1: before conditioning- neutral stimulus (no response), unconditioned stimulus = unconditioned response.

  phase 2: during conditioning- neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus= unconditioned response

  Phase 3: after conditioning- conditioned stimulus (the NS) = conditioned response, learning is now demonstrated when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone it elicits the conditioned reposne.
• operant conditioning 


  the 3-phase learning process that involves an antecedent, behaviour and consequence. the consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that it will reoccur again.
• B.F skinner

  developed in 1930s, B.F skinner created a device called the operant chamber(the 'skinner box') the device ensured that test animals such as rats and pigeons were not exposed by the external environment and could instead be controlled by the experimenter alone.

  skinner found that the consequences of an animal's behaviour (electric shock or food) would influence the likelihood that the behaviour would be repeated.
• characteristics of operant conditioning

  nature of the response: non-reflexive, voluntary, consciously carry out a behaviour.

  timing of the stimulus and response: reinforcement occurs after the correct behaviour is carried out, and punishment occurs after the incorrect behaviour is carried out.

  role of the learner: active role- learner plays a role in choosing to respond in order to receive a reward or avoid punishment.
• 3 phrases of operant conditioning 


  antecedent: the stimulus or event that precedes and elicits a particular behaviour

  behaviour: the voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent

  consequence: the outcome of the behaviour which determines the likelihood that it will occur again.
• types of consequences (reinforcement)


  reinforcement refers to a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

  
  

  positive: the addition of a desirable stimulus which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

  negative: the removal of a desirable stimulus which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.
• types of consequences (punishment)

  punishment: refers to the consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

  positive: the addition of an undesirable stimulus which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

  negative: the removal of an undesirable stimulus which in turn decreases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring.
• factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment.


  timing: reinforcers should be presented as close in time to the desired response.

  order of presentation: the reinforcement must be presented after the desired response.

  appropriateness: reinforcers must provide a pleasing or satisfying consequence for its recipient. punishment must provide a consequence that is unpleasant
• social cognitive approaches to learning

  theories that propose learning take place in a social setting and involve various cognitive processes.
• what is observational learning?

  a process of learning that involves watching the behaviour of a model and the associated consequence of that behaviour.

  learning from someones else experience
• a learner and a model


  the model is the individual who is performing the behaviour that the learner observes

  the learner has an active role in learning as they need to watch and pay attention to the model in order to be able to imitate the behaviour
• stages of observational learning 


  5 different stages

  attention: The learner has to pay close attention and have an active focus on the model's behaviour.

  retention: learnt behaviour must be stored in memory as a mental representation.

  reproduction: learner must have the physical and mental ability to convert the mental representations into actions

  motivation: learner must want to imitate the learnt behaviour and believe there will be a desirable consequence

  reinforcement: once learner is successful, reinforcement will increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated
• 3 stages of reinforcement- observational learning 


  external: when praise or reward is given for your behaviour

  vicarious: observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced for other people.

  self: when reinforced by meeting certain standards that we set for ourselves, can be both positive and negative.
• aboriginal and torres strait islander approaches to learning


  multimodal system of knowledge

  developed in communities working together and sharing traditional expertise and knowledge.

  information that is highly relevant to day-to-day living and survival

  informed by spiritual and ancestral knowledge (dreaming stories/dreamtime stories)

  information is highly interconnected.
• learning embedded in relationships (A&TS)


  learning begins with the relationship between the teacher and the learner, and understanding the connection between people.

  learnt that different knowledge is deeply interconnected within complex systems and that learning is embedded within country.

  in this way, learning is holistic and involves understanding the relationship between things, living beings, spirituality and how they are all interconnected with each other.
• multi-modal 


  First Nation learning is not restricted to a classroom with one teach and multiple students

  learning is relational and interconnected and takes place in the community
• multi-modal (story sharing)


  learning takes place through narrative and story-sharing.

  sharing dreaming stories to communicate complex knowledge relating to the natural world and survival.

  
• multi-modal (learning maps)


  planning and visualising processes and knowledge

  
• multimodal (non-verbal )


  sharing knowledge through non-verbal means, including dance, arts and observation.

  traditional dances where the movements reflect the patterns of certain animals

  
• multi-modal (symbols and images)


  learning through images, symbols and metaphors

  creating artworks that use symbols to represent landmarks, animals or objects

  
• multi-modal (non-linear )


  thinking outside the square and taking knowledge from different viewpoints in order to build new understandings

  learn about history by comparing common aspects of each society.

  
• multi-modal (deconstruct/reconstruct)



  breaking down a concept from whole to parts and then applying it.learners engage by watching and then doing.

  
• multi-modal (land links)



  Learning and knowledge are inherently linked to nature, land and country. content is linked to geographical landmarks and features.

  
• multi-modal (community links)


  connecting learning to local values, needs and knowledge. learning does not occur in a vacuum but rather is shared with others and used to meet the needs of the community.

  
• Memory


  An active information processing system that receives, stores, organises and recovers information
• Information processing model of memory

  1. Encoding

  2. Storage

  3. Retrieval
• Encoding


  The process that converts info into useable form (code) that can be stored and represented in the memory system, for the encoding process to begin you must pay attention to the information
• Storage


  The retention of information in the memory system over time, if we store the information in an organised way, it will make it easier to recover memories when we need them
• Retrieval


  The process of locating info stored in memory by bringing it into consciousness when needed, relies on using the right cues or hints so that we can locate the correct piece of information in the vast network of our memories
• process of memory


  sensory information -encoding (converting information into a useable form). - storage (retaining information for a period of time)- retrieval (accessing information that has been previously stored)
• Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory


  a system consisting of multiple memory stores/levels through which a stream of data flows for processing.

  this model emphasises the storage structures of memory and suggests that info must pass through three memory stores in order to be stored for a long time.

  • sensory memory
  • short term memory (STM)
  • long term memory (LTM)
• sensory memory


  receives and stores an unlimited amount of sensory information for between 0.2-4 seconds- raw information detected by senses.

  only certain things to attend to in order to ensure that we are not overwhelmed by incoming data.

  sensory register is a subsystem of sensory memory that receives and stores specific sensory information received from the sense organ

  entry point for memory

  iconic = visual information

  haptic= physical touch

  echoic= auditory
• short term memory (STM)


  STM is a store of memory that holds a limited amount of information that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated - information in your STM can come both from your sensory or long-term memory.

  has the capacity of being able to hold up to 9 pieces of information/ memory

  and can hold information for approximately 18-20 seconds at a time

  capacity of the STM can be increased through chucking of information.
• long term memory 


  used for relatively permanent storage of an unlimited amount of information

  2 different types of long term memory

  • implicit
  • explicit