gonads and pancreas

• Pancreas


  • Large gland involved in digestive process
  • Located outside of GI
  • 3 parts: Head, Body, Tail
  • Composed of endocrine and exocrine tissues
• Exocrine function of pancreas

  • Enzyme secreting
  • Secretes pancreatic fluid into duodenum after meal
• Endocrine function of pancreas

  • Hormone releasing
  • Produce insulin and glucagon (CHO metabolism)
  • Produce gastrin and somatostatin
  • Produced by islet of Langerhans (spherical/ovoid cluster)
• Pancreatic hormones regulation of plasma glucose concentration

  1. Glycolysis

  2. Glycogenesis

  3. Glycogenolysis

  4. Gluconeogenesis

  5. Lipolysis

  6. Lipogenesis
• Pancreatic fluid


  • Colorless, watery, alkali pH up to 8.3 due to high conc. of sodium bicarbonate
  • About 150 mmol/L
  • Same conc. with that of K and Na
  • Digestive enzymes or proenzymes secreted by the pancreas
• Digestive enzymes secreted by pancreas

  • Proteolytic enzymes (Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Elastase, Collagenase, Leucine aminopeptidase, Carboxypeptidase)
  • Carbohydrate-splitting enzymes (Amylase)
  • Lipid-digesting enzymes (Lipase, Lecithinase)
  • Nucleases (Ribonuclease)
• Pancreatic activity


  • Under nervous and endocrine control
  • Nervous: under vagus nerve where pancreatic fluid secretion when food smelled and increase as bolus reaches stomach
  • Endocrine: under secretin and cholecystokinin
• Pancreatic diseases


  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Cystic fibrosis
  • Pancreatic carcinoma
  • Islet cell tumors
  • Pancreatitis (acute or chronic)
• Laboratory tests for pancreatic function

  • Amylase and lipase test
  • Secretin test / CCK test: exocrine secretory determination
  • Bicarbonates and enzymes
• Reproductive hormones/sex hormones


  • Testes and ovaries produce sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) from cholesterol
  • Influence sexual characteristics and synthesized in testes, ovaries, or adrenal glands
• Major transport proteins for sex hormones

  • Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG)
  • Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin (CBG)
  • Albumin
• Testosterone


  • Most potent male androgen
  • Synthesized by Leydig cells of testis
  • Function: growth and development of reproductive system, prostate, and external genitalia
  • Circadian rhythm: peaks at awakening, lowest at 8pm
  • Gradual reduction with age, about 110 ng/dl every decade after 30 y.o.
• Laboratory tests for testosterone

  • Total testosterone
  • Free testosterone
• Types of testicular infertility (hypogonadism)

  • Pretesticular infertility (secondary hypogonadism)
  • Testicular infertility (primary hypogonadism)
  • Post-testicular hypogonadism
• Other disorders related to sex hormones

  • Testicular feminization syndrome
  • Sertoli-cell only syndrome
  • Kallman's syndrome
• DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone)


  • Weak androgen from adrenal gland
  • Valuable for assessment of adrenal cortical function
• Estrogen


  • Derived from structural alteration of testosterone molecule
  • Promotion of breast development, maturation of external genitalia, deposition of body fat, and termination of linear growth
• Forms of estrogen


  • Estrone (E1)
  • Estradiol (E2)
  • Estriol (E3)
• Progesterone


  • Produced by lutein cells of corpus luteum in females
  • Prime secretory product of ovary
  • Dominant hormone responsible for luteal phase cycle
  • Prepares uterus for pregnancy and lobules of breast for lactation
• Progesterone metabolites


  • Pregnanediol
  • Pregnanediones
  • Pregnanalones
• Laboratory tests for female reproductive hormones

  • Test of menstrual cycle dysfunction and anovulation (estrogen, progesterone, FSH, LH)
  • Test for female infertility (hCG, PRL, FT4, TSH, FSH, LH, Estradiol, Progesterone)