psychopathology

• statistical infrequency


  characteristic that is less common - normal distribution curve extreme 2.5% as different

  e.g IQ abnormal less than 70 and over 130
• statistical infrequency AO3


  • objective and universal cut off scores - classification of abnormality same despite who is classifying H/ who decides the cut off - bias in this respect
  • ignores desirability of some statistically infrequent characteristics e.g IQ over 130 as abnormal as below 70 h/ more desirable
• deviation from social norms


  • when an individual behaves differently to how expected to behave, not adhering to society
• deviation from social norms AO3

  • lacks reliability as not objective - method of social control, ‘different’ pose threat to society
  • cultural relativism - abnormal bvr in one culture may be desirable in another - limited definition lacking validity
• failure to function adequately

  • individual unable to meet demands of everday life e.g hygiene, job
  • rosenhan and seligman OPIUM - observer discomfort, personal suffering, irrationality, unpredictability and maladaptiveness (signs of FFA)
• FFA AO3


  • attempts to be subjective - takes into acount personal experience of individual before diagnoses,
  • h/ objective judgements on patients distress levels through global assessment of functioning
• deviation from ideal mental health


  • Jahoda 1988 - 6 categories for ideal mental health, positive view of self, personal growth, accurate view of reality, autonomy, resistance to stress, master of envt.
• deviation from ideal mental health AO3

  • positive outlook focusing on normal and healthy - in line with humanistic approach
  • unrealistic standards of healthy, very few meet all 6 of criteria and therefore ‘abnormal’
  • aspects e.g autonomy less impt. in some cultures - cultural bias
• characteristics of phobias


  bvral - panic, avoidance, endurance

  cognitive - irrational thoughts, selective att, distortion

  emotional - fear, anxiety
• bvral explanation for phobias

  • two process model
  • phobias first learnt through cc mantained via operant conditioning
  • WATSON AND RAYNOR 1920 - little albert, rat presented w/ loud bang, learned to fear rat (CS), fear generalised to other small furry objects e.g rabbit
  • maintenance of phobia through avoiding phoic stimulus - negative reinforcement as avoidance bvr increased, fear reduced
• bvral explanation to phobias AO3

  • incomplete explanation - suggested evolutionary explanation - seligman 1917 - found innate predisposition to acquiring certain fears(biological preparedness) - ohman et al found fear relevant objects e.g spiders easier to condition phobia to that e.g flowers for which hocks needed - suggests two process model is not full understanding
  • phobias that do not follow a trauma - often trigger e.g dogbite H/ those not bitten can still dev phobia - suggests may be disposition - diathesis stress model more suitable
• bvral approach to treating phobias - systematic desensitisation


  • gradually reduces fear of phobic stimulus by learning new relaxing association - counter conditioning
  • impossible to feel fear and relaxation at same time - reciprocal inhibition
  • fear hierarchy established - taught relaxation techniques from bottom to top of phobic stimulus
• bvral app. to treating phobias - fooding

  • immediate exposure to phobic stimulus in vivo in one long session in order to learn it is harmless-extinction
• SD and flooding AO3

  • SD- effective - McGrath et al - 75% effective, can be administered by self and long lasting with less maintenance
  • Flooding - cost effective, quick effect, 1 long session, may be less effective for some phobias e.g social, furthermore unethical/ traumatic
• characteristics of depression


  bvral - loss of appetite, changes in sleep

  cog - negative self vie, negative view of world, irrational thoughts

  emotional - anger, sadness
• cog approach to explaining depression - Beck

  • faulty information processing - errors in logic/ distortions as well as selective attention towards negative aspects
  • negative self schemas - intepret info in negative way
  • negative triad - neg. view of world, future and self
• cog. app to explaining depression - Ellis


  ABC model

  activating event, belief, consequence

  when beieft irratonal thoughts results in neg consequence and depression negative frameshift
• cog. app to explaining depression AO3

  • practical application in CBT - Becks explanation forms basis of CBT, all cog, aspects of depression can be identified an challenged with CBT, such as negative triad - translated well to therapy
  • H/ both explanations re bidirectional - not clear if depression or irrational thoughts came first
  • Ellis - partial explanation, case of depression following activating event- rective depression H/ cases w/o trigger
• cog. approach to treating depression


  • CBT - identify irrational thoughts in order to challenge , beck, identify negative triad thought patterns and challenge directly/ reality testing e.g court case scenario
  • often set homework
  • REBT - ellis, ABCDE model , D- dispute, E- effect, disputes irrational thought to break link of negative life events and depression
• cog approach to treating depression AO3


  • effective - CBT - reduce relapse rates, as effective as medication and helpful alongside
  • may not be suitable for everyone - responsibility on patient - introspection
  • time consuming and expensive
• characteristics of OCD


  bvral - compulsions

  emotional - distress, anxiety, depression

  cog - obsessions, irrational thoughts and selective attention
• biological exp for OCD - genetic

  • Nestadt et al - OCD 5x increased in families, MZ concordance 90%, DZ 50%
  • candidate genes for OCD identified which create vulnerability e.g hSERT in synapse
  • polygenic
• biological exp for OCD - neural


  • serotonin - chemical imbalance, serotonin reuptake protein works too quickly, serotonin not in synapse long enough to trigger AP effects mental processes in OCD
  • orbital frontal cortex unable to function properly - sends anxiety signals to frontal loop which sends back creating a worry loop - obsessive thoughts
• biological exp. for OCD - AO3


  • evidence for genetic factors - nestadt et al 2010 - MZ 68%, DZ 31%
  • H/concordance rate not 100% suggests envt. risk factor
  • Comer - more than 50% OCD patients have exp of trauma - suggests genetic/bio only partial explanation - diathesis-stress model more suitable
  • Evidence Comer serotonin levels have effect of functioning of caudate nuclei - wider academic credibility
• Biological approach to treating OCD AO1

  • SSRIs - prevent reabsorbtion of serotonion by reuptake proteins in synapse, therefore higher levels of serotonin in synapse to stimulate postsynaptic neurone
  • often used alongside CBT
  • alt. tricyclics same effect h/ increased side effects
• Biological treatment to OCD AO3

  • effective in tackling OCD symptoms - soomro 2009, 17 studies on SSRIs, found more effective than placebo, most effective in combination with CBT, symptoms reduced 70%
  • cost effective and nondisruptive - cheap compared to therapy, suitable if not wishing to engage in therapy
  • side effects - soomro 2008, neausea headache, increase in negative symptoms h/ cost-benefit
  • some cases of OCD follow trauma, drug therapy may not be most appropriate in all cases