Henry VIII

• Main Foreign Policy Aims

  Aggressive policy to gain land and show him as a powerful leader
• France       


  Saw himself as a war leader like Henry V so tried to regain territory in 1512.

  Won the Battle of Spurs in 1513 but the land captured had no strategic importance.

  More concerned with achieving land/prestige in France

  Wolsey negotiated the Treaty of Bruges with Charles V as a means to reduce power of France in Northern Italy.

  Led to English troops invading northern France in 1522-23 but was costly and a bit useless.

  However, Anglo-French treaty in 1514 ended war with France but this was only because of financial constraints.
• War       


  Particularly between 1514-1519

  Wanted to be as powerful as his rivals Charles V and Francis I.

  Battle of Flodden 1513 seriously weakened Scotland, but Henry didn't take advantage of this due to financial constraints. The battle achieved little, and Henry was forced to liquidate his assets to fund it.

  Suggests how driven Henry was to make war a key foreign policy because he was willing to pay expenses even if nothing was achieved.

  However, the battle of Flodden was also part of the attack on France suggesting that Henry’s main aim at this time was to gain territory in France.
• Treaty of London    


  Happened in 1518 and established general European peace.

  This was a strategic move because instead of getting the countries to sign collectively Henry got them to sign with England individually.

  This ensured that England held the power in the peace treaty and made Henry look like a European peacekeeper.

  Wolsey ended England isolationism and made Henry look glorious.

  This was a diplomatic triumph for Wolsey but it was made by Wolsey, but it could be argued that it wasn’t an important policy as Henry was not involved with it.
• Treaty of Bruges 


  Encouraged war between France and England

  Agreed that England would gain land in France and could improve relations with the pope who wanted French control over northern Italy would be reduced.

  Marriage between Henry's daughter Mary and the Emperor of Spain

  It was between Henry VIII and Charles I
• Field of Cloth of Gold        

  Took place in 1520: festival in France displaying friendly relations and peace between Henry VIII and Francis I.

  Presented Henry as a key player in Europe, temporarily ended conflict with France.

  Henry paid £15,000 for an event that diplomatically achieved nothing.

  Peace was a key factor as he could no longer achieve prestige through wars due to a lack of money.

  However, relations were short-lived as Henry signed the treaty of Bruges with Charles in 1521

  Shows he was more concerned with claiming land in France.
• The treaty of Etapes 1510


  Rome was persuaded to enter an alliance against France leading to the creation of the Holy League in 1511 which joined England, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, Venice, and the Papacy in an anti-French alliance but Henry was being used by Ferdinand of Aragon and the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximillian I.
• Invasion of France in 1512


  As part of the Holy League Henry sent an army of 10000 men to Southwest France under the command of the Marquis of Dorset however this achieved very little and was just a distraction to help Ferdinand.
• Invasion of France 1513


  Henry led a force to northeastern France. He won the battle of Spurs. He captured the towns of Therouanne and Tournai.

  Tournai was eventually sold back to the French for less than the English paid to repair damages after the siege.

  The renegotiated French Pension was lost.

  The war was costly and Henry had to liquidate his assets inherited from Henry VII and there were rumors about a Taxation revolt in Yorkshire.
• A Second Campaign?


  A second campaign was considered in 1514 but was abandoned when Ferdinand and Maximillian made separate peace with France, Wolsey recovered the Etaples pension and arranged a marriage between Henry's younger sister Mary Tudor and King of France, Louis XII.
• War with Scotland 1513


  Whilst Henry was away fighting in France he left Catherine of Aragon as regent.

  In September 1513 James IV tried to take advantage of this and crossed the border with substantial force but was defeated at the Battle of Flodden by a smaller army led by the Earl of Surrey. James, and most of the Scottish nobility, were killed, leaving the throne to the infant James V.

  By the end of 1514 Henry had run out of money to continue a warlike foreign policy, consequently he was unable to exploit the weaknesses of Scotland following the death of James IV at Flodden.
• 1514 - 1526


  England remained a minor power compared to countries like Spain and France.

  Henry significantly overestimated the power of English troops.

  Henry also had run out of money and couldn't continue his aggressive foreign policy. This meant he was unable to exploit the weaknesses of Scotland and had to seek peace with countries like France.
• Peace with France


  Henry organized a marriage between Mary Tudor and Louis XII in 1514.

  However, due to the age gap Louis died leaving Mary who then married the Duke of Suffolk. This meant that Mary could no longer be used for diplomatic purposes which infuriated Henry.
• Young Monarchs


  Due to several deaths, Europe was populated with a lot of young monarchs.

  His grandson and successor, Charles V, sought an alliance with the French. Charles and his other grandfather agreed the Treaty of Cambrai, leaving England dangerously isolated.
• Duke of Albany sent to Scotland


  Francis I decided to undermine Anglo-Scottish relations which he was able to do since the Duke of Albany, heir presumptive to the Scottish throne, was a member of the French nobility.

  Albany was able to consolidate his position by being appointed regent to the Scottish throne.

  Whilst Wolsey and Henry saw Albany as a French agent, any threat he posed was minimized by poisonous divisions amongst the Scottish nobility.

  Henry showed himself incapable of exploiting divisions and weaknesses within Scotland.
• 1522 invasion of France


  After the treaty with Charles Henry promised to send an army of 30,000 men into France. However, this was costly and Wolsey was demanding revenue from Parliament who were reluctant to grand extraordinary revenue and the Church.
• The Battle of Pavia


  Charles V was victorious over the French at the Battle of Pavia.

  Henry, attempting to benefit from this, suggested he and Charles launch a joint invasion of Northern France to achieve territory.

  However, Charles was reluctant as he didn't want to share the victory and nor did he require the support from England anymore.

  Henry was obliged to back down.

  Wolsey's domestic prestige never recovered.

  Charles rejected his marriage contract with Mary.
• League of Cognac 


  Fracturing of the Anglo-imperial alliance lead Henry and Wolsey to a pro-French policy.

  The Anti-Imperial League of Cognac was put together by the Pope to counter-balance the excessive power of the Emperor in Northern Italy. Along with the Kings great Matter it made Henry an object of suspicion in Catholic Europe
• Treaty of Amiens 1527


  England offers support to France against the Holy Roman Empire/Spain in the Treaty of Amiens.

  Their weak position forces them to make an anti-Imperial alliance.
• Treaty of Cambrai 1529


  Wolsey tried to pressurize Charles the V when he tried to introduce a trade embargo on the Burgundian lands but this created widespread unemployment and social issues in England.

  Charles was victorious at the Battle of Landriano in 1529.

  Charles was therefore dominant over the Pope.

  Temporally secured peace in Italy and also proved the Popes political dependence on Charles and why he could not grant a divorce.
• Fall of Wolsey 1529


  Wolsey sought to pressure the Emperor by imposing a trade embargo with the Burgundian lands but Charles' retaliation caused widespread unemployment and social problems in England.

  The rise of Charles meant Henry's attempt to solve his marital issues through diplomatic means was near impossible.

  Henry needed someone to blame for his failure which resulted in Wolsey's fall from power.
• Defense Alliance between France and England 1532


  France was also in a weak position but the usefulness of the alliance soon depleted as Francis I sought a marriage between his son, Henry, and the Pope's niece, Catherine del Medici.

  This led to England choosing to break away from Rome.
• Break from Rome 1533


  The only solution Henry had to resolve his 'Great Matter' which horrified the Catholic powers.

  Henry tried to reinforce his position by making an alliance with the League of Schmalkden which foundered amongst mutual mistrust. 
• Renewal of fighting between France and the Holy Roman Empire/Spain1536

  Pressure on Henry's position was reduced

  The death of Catherine of Aragon and the execution of Anne Boleyn opened up the possibility of a renewed alliance with the Emperor

  The renewal of fighting between the Emperor and Francis I reduced the potential danger of England's isolated position.
• Peace Between France and they Holy Roman Empire 1538


  Henry's position was once again weakened

  Charles and Francis signed the Treaty of Nice and severed connections with England

  Pope Paul III published a bull excommunicating Henry and thereby absolving English Catholics from the need to obey their ruler

  The Pope sent envoys to both France and Scotland to rouse support for a Catholic Crusade against Henry
• The Pope attempts to start and Anti-England Crusade 1539


  Henry fears invasion as the Pope attempts to unite Catholic powers in an anti-England crusade.

  The Six Articles Act of 1539 was intended to reassure Catholic opinion in England.
• Marriage to Anne of Cleves 1540


  Henry was scared Charles and Francis would invade England so married Anne of Cleves to attempt an alliance with the League of Schmalkden.

  The marriage quickly became politically redundant and was annulled.
• Invasion of Scotland 1542


  The Scots were forced into military action after being faced with demands they could have not possibly met.

  The Scots were defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss James V died leaving one week old Mary as heir.
• Treaty of Greenwich 1543 (1)


  Henry tried to marry Prince Edward to Mary, Queen of Scots.

  It was supported by Scottish regent, the Earl of Arran.

  English Edinburgh Ambassador, Sir Ralph Sadler, reported that there were suspicions of English intentions.

  The Scots refused the request that Mary be raised in England.

  The children were formally betrothed according to the Treaty of Greenwich.
• Treaty of Greenwich 1543 (2)


  Arran deserted the English cause and Scottish parliament refused to ratify the treaty.

  Enraged Henry ordered the Earl of Hertford to carry out a raid on Edinburgh, Leith, and St. Andrews.

  Henry neglected the opportunity to secure his policy by military force when he had the opportunity in 1542

  He failed to heed Sadler's warnings about Scottish hostility

  Ordering Hertford into Scotland was just retaliation with no strategic objectives
• Invasions of France 1545


  To facilitate the French invasion Henry had agreed on an alliance with the Emperor.

  Desperate for military glory Henry set off at the head of his army, with no strategic objectives, and consequently the English army confined itself to Calais, besieging Montreuil unsuccessfully but captured Boulogne.

  By this time the Emperor had made seperate peace with France
• Invasion of Scotland 1545


  Francis I sent troops to Scotland to reinforce a possible invasion of England from across the Scottish border.

  The English were defeated at the Battle of Ancrum Moor.

  A separate French force landed in the Isle of Wight.

  The French failed to recapture Boulogne and the invasion of Northern England never happened.

  They settled for peace in 1546 as neither could afford the price of conflict.
• Invasion of Scotland 1545 (2)

  Henry was unable to fund war from extraordinary revenue and had to sell lots of the Crown estate, borrowed large sums, and debased the coinage therefore significantly increasing the rate of inflation.
• Main aims when coming to the throne

  Establish his status among the other European monarchs with the use of marriage - he married Catherine of Aragon on 11th June 1509.

  Reestablish the role of the Nobility - Henry VIII largely reversed his fathers decisions. Members of the Nobility accompanied him to his wars in France.

  Establish himself as a warrior King.
• Thomas Wolsey


  Wolsey was used to organise the forthcoming expedition to France in 1512

  1513 became the Bishop of Tournai

  1514 made Archbishop of York

  1515 Pope Leon X made him Cardinal

  1518 he was appointed papal legate - had control over the religious orders in England
• Conciliar Government


  1509 - 1514

  Reluctance for the senior councils to support wars in France

  Development of Henry VIII and his ability to make his own decisions

  The views of his fellow young courtiers who reenforced suspicions of the senior councilor

  The rise of Thomas Wolsey
• Privy Chamber


  The role of the Privy Chamber was extended in Henry's reign when the King's minions became Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber.

  Collectively the minions distrusted Wolsey who set himself the tax of neutralising their influence.

  In 1519 he secured the removal of the minions and replaced them with his own supporters however many managed to recover their position. The Privy retained some of it's prestige and was a part of goverment which was outside Wolsey's immediate control.
• Court of Chancellery 


  The main court of equity.

  Wolsey was not a trained lawyer but as Lord Chancellor he oversaw the legal system.

  He had the right to preside over the Court of Chancery and tried to uphold fair justice.

  The main problem was that the chancery court became too popular and justice was slow since it became clogged up with too many cases.

  1515 Wolsey wanted to promote civil law based on natural cases and evidence rather than common law based on cases in the past
• The Star Chamber


  This was barely used under Henry VII

  This had been established by an Act of Parliament in 1487, as an offshoot of the King's Council and became the centre of government and justice under Wolsey.

  Wolsey extended the use of the Star Chamber from 1516 to increase cheap and fair justice.

  Wolsey heard cases of alleged misconduct by people who were dominant in their localities.

  Gave Wolsey a reputation of being a friend of the poor.
• The Tudor Subsidy (1)

  1522 Wolsey organized a national survey to see how much tax the population were able to pay.

  It was expected taxpayers would provide extraordinary revenue when required which was effectively achieved by raising subsidies

  Wolsey changed the way subsidies were collected.

  Instead of using local commissioners to assess taxpayers wealth. Wolsey set up a national committee which he headed and used direct and realistic assessments of taxpayers so the nation's revenue base became more realistic