memory

• Baddely - coding


  4 groups given list of words either

  1. acoustically similar
  2. acoustically dissimilar
  3. semantically similar
  4. semantically dissimilar

  Ps asked to recall correct order immediately after (STM) or 20 mins after (LTM)

  STM - worse recall of acoustically similar

  LTM - worse recall of semantically similar

  suggests STM acoustic coding, LTM semantic

  • AO3 - artificial stimuli, cautious generalising to all info
• Jacobs research into capacity

  digit span technique - 1887

  • Ps given string of digits and asked to repeat back immediately, digit length increasing each time
  • found mean span for digits 9.3 and letters 7.3 - consistent with 7+/-2 items of STM
• multistore model of memory AO1

  • sensory register - stimuli from envt, coding modality specific in terms of sense - iconic for visual, duration less than 1/2 second, high capacity, info only passes on if given attention
  • STM - limited capacity of 7+/-2 items, coded acoustically, duration 18-30secs unless rehearsed, maintenance rehearsal allows info into LTM
  • LTM - permanent memory store, unlimited capacity, coded semantically, recall takes place when info is transferred back to STM through retrieval
• MSM AO3


  • supporting research of Baddely in coding, supported existence of STM and LTM as separate stores
  • evidence for duration and capacity of STM - Jacobs digit span technique H/ artificial stimuli lacks mundane realism, MSM may not be suitable explanation for everyday lives
  • there is more than one type of STM - case study KF - STM for digits poor when read out to him but better when read himself, incomplete expl, WMM better as doesn't reduce STm to unitary store
• Types of LTM


  episodic - memory store of personal events, timestamped, recalled consciously

  semantic - store of knowledge/facts of world, informational memory, recalled consciously

  procedural - actions/motor skills, recalled unconsciously and often hard to describe in words
• types of LTM AO3 - Clinical evidence from case studies

  • Clive Wearing
  • Retrograde amnesia
  • Could not remember music education (episodic) but could still play piano (procedural)
  • Could also learn new skills through repetition of procedural actions but not form new episodic memories
  • Supports Tulving's idea of diff LTM memory
  • H/ case study not generalisable
• Types of LTM AO3 - Neuroimaging evidence

  Tulving PET scans showed episodic right prefrontal cortex, semantic left prefrontal cortex - diff stores physically
• Types of LTM AO3 - only two types rather than 3?

  Cohen and Squire proposed two types of LTM: declarative (episodic and semantic can be described in words) and non-declarative (procedural)
• Central executive


  Monitors incoming data and allocates to specific slave system, limited capacity
• Phonological loop


  • Auditory info split into two stores
  • Articulatory process allows maintenance rehearsal
  • Phonological store stores words heard, acoustic coding, limited capacity and duration of around 2 seconds
• Episodic buffer


  Added by Baddely in 2000 as temporary store integrating all info, limited capacity of 4 chunks, links to LTM
• AO3 WMM KF Clinical evidence

  • Brain damage amnesia
  • Poor STM for verbal info but could remember if presented visually
  • Supports separate existence of VSS and acoustic store
• Supporting research for VSS

  • Dual task performance Baddely et al
  • Participants two visual tasks tracking light and describing F, vs visual plus acoustic task, latter better performance as not competing for same slave system
• Evidence for phonological loop

  • Word length effect Baddely
  • Increased difficulty remembering list of long words due to finite space for maintenance rehearsal
  • Effect gone when articulatory suppression task
• interference theory AO1


  forgetting due to one memory interfering with another - usually similar

  proactive - old interferes with new

  retroactive - new interferes with old
• interference theory AO3


  Supporting R. McGeoh and McDonald 1931 studies retroactive inteference, list of 10 words to 6 groups the second of either synonyms,antonyms,constant sounds,3dig, unrelated, no new list - found recall worst when most similar

  evidence from lab ex - high validity

  SMIDT ET AL - 211 dutch Ps given road map of old school distract asked to name streets, found more moved - worse recall
• retrieval failure AO1


  forgetting due to insufficient cues in envt, TULVING - ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE - cues present at time of coding must be present at time of retrieval, triggers can be context dependant e.g sounds or state dependant e.g emotions
• retrieval failure AO3


  supporting R. context dep Godden and Baddely - list of words to divers land/underwater learning and recall, 4 groups, learn land, recall land/ learn underwater, recall underwater/ learn land, recall underwater/ learn underwater, recall land - found recall better in conditions of both same envt, overall recall 40% less in non matching conditions

  supporting R. state dependant Goodwin 1969 - training session Ps sober/alchohol avoidance and verbal task, performance better of sober/sober and alcohol/alcohol groups

  problems with ESP - cant be tested
• Factors affecting EWT - leading questions AO1

  Loftus and Palmer 1974 - Ps shown car accident video asked how was were the cars going when 'hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed', contacted lowest speed 31.8mph, smashed highest 40.5mph - biased recall

  two explanations

  1. response-bias - wording of LQ not changed memory but the way in which Q in answered
  2. substitution explanation - demonstrated by variation study when asked if broken glass seen - smashed group more likely to say yes when not any - suggests verb alters memory of incident
• leading questions AO3


  practical application - criminal justice system - emphasis on wording during EWT h/ Foster criticised L&P lab ex as consequences of response not as great as EWT

  contradicting evidence - Sutherland 2001 LQ on central aspects rather than peripheral more accurate recall due to attention - therefore impt. points of EWT may not be affected
• Post event discussion AO1

  cowitnesses discuss events, influences accuray of memory due to conformity effect - change belief in order to gain approval

  GABBERT 2003 - Ps studies in pairs, shown same crime but diff POV, discussed after, found 71% mistakenly recalled aspects not seen but picked up in discussion compared to 0% in control nondiscussion group
• Post event discussion AO3

  R. support - Bugs bunny Loftus and pivkrell 2003, 120 Ps, 4 groups disneyland ad - normal ad, BB ad, normal ad and BB cut out, bugs bunny ad and cut out - 50% in BB group remembered seeing bugs bunny, 40% in double exposure group had false memory planted

  H/ artificial stimulus
• Factors affecting EWT - anxiety AO1

  negative affect on recall as attention away from cues

  Johnson and Scott weapon effect- Ps in waiting room overhear argument man walks out with either greasy pen or bloody knife, when asked to identify man 49% acc. in pen group only 33% knife as anxiety caused by knife removed focus - tunnel theory

  also suggested H/ yerkes-dodson law - low levels anxiety beneficial for recall as alertness increased
• anxiety AO3 


  weapon affect may not be relevant - may be surprise instead of anxiety - pickrel 1998 - hairdressing salon robbery person w/ scissors, raw chicken, handgun, EWT worse for unusual chicken group

  ethical issues - such research exposes Ps to high anxiety situations in order to give idea of the effects of anxiety

  demand characteristics of lab ex

  field studies lack control - post-event
• improving EWT cognitive interview AO1

  Fisher and Gieselman 1992 techniques:

  1. report everything
  2. reinstate context - return to crime in mind and cues
  3. reverse order - prevents reporting what expected
  4. change perspective - prevents schema

  Enhanced cognitive interview - interviewer eye contact, reducing anxiety and distractions, open-ended questions
• cognitive interview AO3


  • CI time consuming and police have to be trained to implement properly, need to establish rapport and allow eyewitness to relax
  • not all elements equally useful - Milne and Bull, each element produced more info than standard interview however combination of report everything and context reinstatement better recall - some aspects may be more useful than others casts doubt on overall credibility
  • support for effectiveness of ECI - meta-analysis khonken et al 1991 - ECI consistently more correct info - practical benefits H/ also 61% more false positives (incorrect info)