Part 2

• Demand Characteristics


  PPs identify subtle cues as to the behaviour the experimenter expects to happen so the PPs may act a certain way
• Social Desirability Bias


  PPs may lie and give answers expected of them instead of what they truly believe
• Investigator Effects


  Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome. This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection and interaction with PPs during the research process
• Ethical Issues


  When a conflict exists between the rights of PPs in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic data
• BPS code of ethics


  Instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is acceptable when dealing with PPs
• Informed Consent

  • Involves making PPs aware of the aims and their rights (including the right to withdraw)
  • From the researcher’s point of view, asking for informed consent may make the study meaningless because behaviour will not be ‘natural’ as they know the aims of the study
• Deception

  • Deception means deliberately misleading or withholding information from PPs at any stage of the investigation
  • PPs who have not received adequate information cannot be said to have given informed consent
  • Deception can be justified if it does not cause the PP distress
• Protection from harm

  • PPs should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives and should be protected from physical and psychological harm
  • The latter includes being made to feel embarrassed, inadequate or being placed under undue stress or pressure
  • PPs should be reminded that they have the right to withdraw from the investigation at any point
• Confidentiality

  • PPs have the right to control information about themselves
  • This is the right of privacy
  • If this is invaded then confidentiality should be protected
  • Confidentiality refers to our right under the Data Protection Act, to have any personal data protected
• Dealing with informed consent

  • PPs should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate.
  • For investigations involving children under 16, a signature of parental consent is required
• Dealing with deception and protection from harm

  • PPs should be given a full debrief and be made aware of the true aims of the investigation and any details they were not told
  • PPs should also be told what their data will be used for and must be given the right to withdraw during the study and the right to withhold data
  • PPs may have natural concerns related to their performance within the investigation and should be reassured that their behaviour was normal
  • If PPs have been subject to stress or embarrassment they may require counselling
• Dealing with confidentiality

  • If personal details are held these must be protected
  • It is more usual to simply record no personal details i.e. maintain anonymity
  • Researchers usually refer to PPs using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation
  • It is standard practice that during briefing and debriefing PPs are reminded that their data will be protected and that it will not be shared with others
• Peer Review 


  The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality
• The main aims of peer review

  • To allocate research funding- Independent peer evaluation also takes place to decide whether or not to award funding for a proposed research project. This may be co-ordinated by government-run funding organisations
  • To validate the quality and relevance of research- All elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy
  • To suggest amendments or improvements- Reviewers may suggest minor revisions of the work and improve the report. In extreme circumstances, they may conclude that the work is inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn
• AO3 Peer Review: Anonymity

  • It is usual practice that the ‘peer’ doing the reviewing remains anonymous as this is likely to produce a more honest response
  • But a minority of reviewers may use their anonymity as a way of criticising rival researchers especially as many are in direct competition for limited research funding
  • Some journals favour a system of open reviewing whereby the names of the reviewer are made public
• AO3 Peer Review: Publication Bias

  • It is a natural tendency for editors of journals to want to publish ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase the credibility and circulation of their publication
  • They also prefer to publish positive results
  • This could mean that research which does not meet these criteria is ignored or disregarded which creates a false impression of the current state of psychology if journal editors are being selective in what they publish
• AO3 Peer Review: Burying ground breaking research

  • The peer review process may stop research in particular scientific fields
  • Reviewers tend to be especially critical of research that contradicts their own view and much more favourable to that which matches it
  • Established scientists are the ones more likely to be chosen as reviewers
  • As a result, findings that chime with current opinion are likely to be passed as innovative research that challenges the established order so peer review may have the effect of slowing down the rate of change within a particular scientific discipline
• Example of implications of research for the economy

  1. Health- funding research on memory loss on dementia
  2. Education
  3. Leisure- councils spending money on bike lanes to encourage cycling
  4. Law and order- more officers to prevent crime on the streets
• Research that has implications for the economy: Schaffer and Emerson

  • Babies form attachments with adults who are sensitive to their needs
  • Babies form multiple attachments from 10 months onwards
  • The father is a key attachment figure
  • Both parents can take it in turns to look after the baby initially and the mother can return to work knowing that the child is happy to attach to others contributing to the workplace and the family unit financially
• Research that has implications for the economy: Loftus and Palmer

  • The research investigated the reliability of eyewitness testimony using leading questions
  • Understanding how to question witnesses means that it is less likely that an innocent person is sent to prison due to faulty eyewitness identification
  • Miscarriages of justice are expensive for society as they involve the trial, the cost of keeping someone in prison, the appeal , a re-trial and possible financial compensation for the wrongly accused
• Research that has implications for economy: Treatments

  • Absence from work costs the economy an estimated £15 billion a year with a third of all absences are caused by mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety
  • Psychological research into the causes and treatments of mental disorders has an important role
  • Patients are able to be assessed quickly and gain swift access to treatment and many conditions are treated through the use of drugs such as SSRIs for depression and OCD
  • Referrals can also be made by GPs for psychotherapies such as systematic desensitisation or CBT
• Scientific Report

  Presents the findings of a piece of research which has been designed, conducted and then analysed by one or more researchers
• What is in a scientific report?

  • Includes an abstract ( summary piece of research explaining the whole thing and if the first part of the report), method which has the sample, design, the materials and the procedure
  • The results which presents the findings
  • A discussion which then includes evaluation
  • Referencing must be done