Observation

• Observational techniques - a way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them. Observation is often used within an experiment as a way of assessing the DV.


  Pro - can capture unexpected behaviour

  Con - risk of observer bias
• Naturalistic observation - takes place where the target behaviour would normally occur


  Pro - high external validity (generalisable)

  Con - low control
• Controlled observation - some control/manipulation of variables including control of EVs.


  Pro - can be replicated (standardised procedures)

  Con - may have low external validity
• Covert observation - participants are unaware they are being studied.


  Pro - reduced demand characteristics

  Cons - ethically questionable
• Overt observation - participants are aware they're being studied


  Pro - more ethically acceptable

  Con - demand characteristics
• Participant observation - researcher becomes a part of the group they are studying.


  Pro - can lead to greater insight

  Con - possible loss of objectivity
• Non-participant observation - researcher remains separate from the group they are studying.


  Pro - more objective

  Con - loss of insight
• Behavioural categories - the target behaviour to be observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories - similar to operationalisation.


  Cons:

  • Difficult to make clear and unambiguous
  • Dustbin categories (dumped behaviours go unrecorded)
• Time sampling - observations are made at regular intervals, e.g. once every 15 seconds.


  Pro - reduces number of observations

  Con - may be unrepresentative
• Event sampling - a target event/behaviour is recorded every time it occurs.


  Pro - may record infrequent behaviour

  Con - complex behaviour can be oversimplified