Attacgemnt

• Reciprocity


  When infant and caregiver 'TAKE TURNS' in actions.

  -The more intense the reciprocity, the stronger the attachment
• Alert Phases


  Babies have alert phases

  >Signal they're ready for interaction

  >Mothers usually pickup and respond to this 2/3 of the time
• Interactional synchrony


  -When infant and caregiver MIRROR one another or move in a coordinated way.

  -Display same behaviours, SIMULTANEOUSLY

  -The more in-sync they are, the stronger the attachment
• When does Interactional Synchrony begin?

  2 weeks old (Meltzoff & Moore)
• Supportive Research of Caregiver-Infant Interactions (Meltzoff & Moore)

  -Observed it as young as 2 weeks old

  -Adult displayed one of three facial expressions/gestures

  -Childs response was filmed

  -Mirrored more than chance would predict

  
  

  -Shows clear support for the existence of caregiver-infant interactions, as it occurred more than chance would predict it to
• Strength of research of Caregiver-Infant Interactions (Lab)

  -Research usually films in a lab

  -Other activity that could distract the baby can be controlled

  -Also filming it allows for data to be analysed data as to not affect the experiment whilst it's being conducted

  -Filmed interactions also established inter-rater reliability as many people can view it and confirm it

  -Babies behaviour won't change as they don't know camera is observing them

  -Good reliability and validity
• Limitation of Caregiver-Infant Interactions (Hard to observe)

  -Difficulty in observing babies.

  -Not co-ordinated so only small gestures/change in facial expressions are observed

  -Hard to interpret the MEANING of infants' movements (deciding if a hand movement is a response/twitch)

  
  

  >Therefore, can't establish any particular interaction observed between caregiver and infant is meaningful.
• What are Schaffer's 4 stages of attachment?

  1) Asocial

  2) Indiscriminate

  3) Specific

  4) Multiple
• What is the Asocial Phase?

  - 0-8 weeks

  
  

  Cannot distinguish between non human objects and humans, preference for familiar adults

  
  

  (Demonstrated by smiling at human faces)
• What is the Indiscriminate Phase?

  -2-7 Months

  -Infants show a PREFERENCE FOR PEOPLE rather than inanimate objects

  -Accept comfort from any human

  -Smiles more at familiar things than unfamiliar
• What is the Specific Phase?

  -7-12 Months

  -Shows separation anxiety & stranger anxiety

  -Adults are 'secure bases

  -Primary attachment to one person
• What is the Multiple Phase?

  -1 year+

  -Forms secondary attachments with familiar adults they spend time with

  -Attachments for different functions
• Strength of Schaffer & Emerson's research? (Validity)

  -Good external validity

  -Most observations were made by parents during ordinary activities

  -Good ecological validity because activities could be applied to real-life

  -If they knew they were being observed, may have caused anxiety or a change in behaviour

  -Highly likely the ppts behaved naturally while being observed
• Strength of Schaffer & Emerson's research? (Real world Application)

  -Practical application in day-care, when parents aren't looking after babies

  -Asocial & Indiscriminate: Can be comforted by any skilled adult

  -However, when starting daycare with 'strangers', they may get nervous and have problems

  -Means parents use of daycare can be planned using their stages

  -Improves validity and uses
• Limitation of Schaffer & Emerson's research? (Poor evidence, asocial)


  -Measures used during asocial stage

  -Young babies have poor coordination & are immoble

  -Young babies fee anxiety quite often

  -Difficult for mothers to observe & report

  
  

  >Babies may be quite social, but flawed methods could make them appear asocial

  >Reduces validity
• Research support for Mother AS IMPORTANT as the father

  >Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

  -75% of babies studied formed attachment with father by 18 months

  -27% of cases had joint father + mother attachment

  -Most fathers go on to be important attachments

  -Babies protested when father went away (attached!)
• Research Support for Mother MORE IMPORTANT than father

  >Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

  -Only 3% of cases had father as sole object of attachment

  -Majority of babies FIRST became attached to MOTHER at 7 months (specific attachment)
• Reasons for Father's role being less than the Mother's

  -Traditional role as money-earner in the family (less time for baby)

  -Less psychologically equipped for close bonds

  >Oestrogen = Promotes caring behaviour & sensitivity
• Father's role DIFFERENT to Mothers- research

  Grossman- Found the quality of father's play related to their adolescent attachment
• Father's role THE SAME as mother's - research

  Field's research- When fathers take on the role of primary caregiver, they spent more time smiling, imitating and holding the baby than secondary fathers did
• Strength of Role of the Father (Application)

  -Used to offer advice to parents

  -Helps them make decisions over being the primary caregiver or not

  -Stereotypes can affect roles chosen

  -Research can reassure parents that both can be primary attachment figures

  -Also gay couples can be assured it won't affect child development

  -Helps reduce anxiety in parents

  
  

  -Also benefits our legal system with paternity leave

  -Allows more women to stay working
• Limitation of Role of the Father (Generalisability)

  -Most research done on heterosexual couples and families

  -Doesn't consider if there are two mothers or two fathers

  -Limits it's level of explanation as it won't apply to both homosexual & heterosexual couples, so we don't know the role of the father if there are two of the same

  -Therefore limits it's generalisability as it only applies to 'standard' families but not ALL families
• Limitation of Role of the Father (Alternative Explanation)

  -Could be related to traditional gender roles, in which women are expected to be more caring and nurturing than men

  -Therefore, fathers simply don't feel they should act in a nurturing way

  -Female hormones (e.g. oestrogen) create higher levels and impact level of nurturing

  -'Motherly instinct'

  -Women could be biologically predisposed to be primary attachment figures
• What did Lorenz observe as a child?

  -A duckling following him as it had imprinted
• Outline Lorenz's (1952) Procedure


  -Randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs

  -Half hatched in a natural environment w/ mother

  -Half hatched in an incubator, w/ Lorenz as first moving object they saw
• Outline Lorenz's (1952) Findings


  -Found geese followed first moving object

  -Even when mixed, stayed following (Imprinting)

  -Geese imprinted on adults tried to mate with humans later on
• Outline Lorenz (1952) Conclusion


  -Critical Period is dependent on the species

  -If they don't imprint in set time, they won't attach to the mother figure
• What is Imprinting?


  A form of attachment (mainly in birds) where close comfort is kept with the first large moving object encountered
• Limitation of Lorenz Research (Generalisability)


  -Research conducted on birds

  -Humans have much more developed brains with different processes and behaviours

  -Mammal mothers show much more emotional attachment to kids than birds do

  -Mammals can form attachments at most ages

  
  

  >Therefore limited generalisability, as it cant apply to humans
• Strength of Lorenz study (Influencial)


  -Findings have been highly influential within developmental psychology

  -Imprinting seen as irreversible, suggesting its under biological control and must be done within certain time frame

  -Lead to Psychologists such as Bowlby to develop theories about the consequences of different mothers & lack of mothers

  -Therefore more validity as it has been used in many aspects of psychological development
• What is 'Contact Comfort'?

  The infant's need for physical closeness and touching
• Outline Harlow (1958) Procedure

  -Tested if soft objects are as good as mother's comfort

  -16 Baby Monkeys in a lab

  -Had 2 'Surrogate' mothers;

  > 1. Wire mesh & Feed bottle

  > 2. Cloth base & No food
• Outline Harlow (1958) Findings

  -Most of the time, monkey was w/ cloth mother

  -Only used wire model to eat

  -Cloth gave COMFORT

  -Later on, monkeys showed social/emotional disturbance & females were violent mothers
• Outline Harlow (1958) Conclusion

  -Found more attachment w/ comfort & protection figure

  -Isolation in childhood affected their development
• Limitation of Harlow's Research (Generalisability)

  -Research conducted on birds

  -Humans have much more developed brains and deeper emotions than monkeys

  -Similar species, but not the same

  -Doesn't mean that humans will act the same way ads monkeys did

  >Therefore limited generalisability, as it cant apply to humans
• Limitation of Harlow's Research (Ethical Issues)

  -Monkeys considered similar enough to humans to generalise findings, but suffering is not human-like

  -Long-lasting emotional effects on monkeys

  -Struggled to form relationships with peers afterwards

  -Therefore unethical as it impacted the welfare and future lives of the monkeys
• How does Learning Theory explain attachment?

  Food = UCS, Baby's UCR of pleasure from food

  -Mother (NS) gives food (UCS) to baby (UCR)

  -Therefore, mother becomes a Conditioned Stimulus, with the baby's Conditioned Response of pleasure towards her
• Link positive reinforcement to mother/baby relations


  -Babies cry for comfort

  -Leads to response from caregiver

  -They are rewarded with comfort/food etc

  -Behaviour is reinforced
• Link negative reinforcement to mother/baby relations


  -Baby stops crying when mother responds

  -Unpleasant consequence (crying of baby) is removed

  
  

  -Baby is uncomfortable when hungry

  -Mother gives baby food, takes away discomfort (rewarding)
• Operant conditioning in Attachment

  -Baby cries so mother responds by feeding/comforting

  -Baby produces the same behaviour to get the reward