psychopathology

• what are the four definitions of abnormality

  -statistical infrequency

  -deviation from social norms

  -deviation from ideal mental health

  -failure to function
• outline the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality

  abnormal behaviour is any behaviour that goes against the unwritten rules of society known as social norms
• outline the failure to function definition of abnormality

  abnormality occurs when an individual cannot deal with the demands of everyday life, such as holding down a job or leaving the house

  - defined into 7 sections - observer discomfort, violation of moral standards, unconventionality, irrationality, maladaptive behaviour, experiencing personal distress and unpredicability
• what are the 7 sections of the failure to function definition of abnormality

  -observer discomfort

  -violation of moral standards

  -unconventionality

  -unpredictability

  -irrationality

  -maladaptive behaviour

  -experiencing personal distress
• outline the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality


  abnormality is defined as a trait, behaviour or disorder which is RARE in the population - occurring in less than 5% of the population
• outline the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality

  abnormality is defined as an absence of good mental health or wellbeing

  - jahoda's criteria defines 'good mental health' as good self esteem, self actualisation, autnomy, resistance to stress, accurate perception of reality and environmental mastery
• what are Jahoda's 6 criteria for ideal mental health

  -good self esteem

  -self actualisation

  -accurate perception of reality

  -environmental mastery

  -resistance to stress

  -autonomy
• give two strengths and two weaknesses of the failure to function definition of abnormality

  + measurable by the global assessment of functioning scale - can determine whether an individual would be classed as abnormal under this definition

  + behaviour is observable and identifiable

  
  

  - abnormalities do not alway stop the person from functioning

  - may lead to negative stigma around mental disorders, and the labelling of people as 'crazy
• give two strengths and two weaknesses of the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality


  + looks at the whole population to determine whether a characteristic is abnormal, gives insight to the whole picture of a characteristic

  + abnormality is defined by mathematics, objectively and without any bias

  
  

  - some abnormal behaviours which need treatment occur frequently within the population - eg depression

  - some abnormal behaviours/disorders may be more prevelant in cetrain cultures - does not take cultural differences into account when looking at the entire population
• give two strengths and two weaknesses of the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality

  + flexible to factors such as age or gender, and can be applied to different cultures

  + helps to maintain an ordered and predictable society by suggesting that adhering to social norms is normal

  
  

  - ethnic minorities within a society may have cultural practices that they consider normal but go against the social norms of the majority

  - social norms may change over time so it can be hard to define abnormality between generations
• give two strengths and two weaknesses of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality

  + allows for an indivdual who is struggling to have a targeted intervention if their behaviour is classified as abnormal

  + includes a range of reasons why an individual may need help with their mental health

  
  

  - jahoda's criteria is subjective and it may be difficult to measure whether someone fits the criteria to be defined as abnormal

  - the criteria defined by jahoda makes ideal mental health almost impossible to achieve, which would cause most of the population to be considered abnormal
• what are the behavioural characteristics of OCD

  - compulsive and repetitive actions in response to obsessions - often uncontrollable urges
• what are the cognitive characteristics of OCD


  - obsessions in the form of intrusive, irrational or unwanted thoughts, ideas or images

  - recognition that obsessions are self-created irrational thoughts, but are still unable to stop performing compulsions in response (eg feeling like they need to compulsively lock the house multiple times in order to prevent a family member from dying)
• what are the emotional characteristics of OCD


  - obsessive thoughts are frightening and unpleasent, which creates anxiety, and often guilt or disgust

  - the urge to repeat compulsive behaviours can create anxiety and low mood
• outline the genetic explanation for OCD, including the SERT and COMT gene

  OCD may be inherited via specific genes passed down by family members

  - SERT gene is a malfunction of the gene controlling the reuptake of serotonin from the synapse - causing excess reuptake by receptor sites and low serotonin levels (creates anxiety)

  - COMT gene is a malfunction of the gene controlling dopamine activity, causing higher dopamine levels - as dopamine is a neurotransmitter controlling motivation and drive, this is associated with compulsions
• outline the diathesis-stress model relating to the genetic explanation of OCD

  - twin studies do not have a 100% concordance rate between monozygotic twins, suggesting that genetics can not be the only cause of OCD

  - one suggestion is that individuals may inherit a genetic vulnerability to OCD (eg SERT or COMT gene), but this must be triggered by the environment in order to lead to OCD
• outline the neural explanation for OCD

  OCD results from abnormally functioning or damaged brain mechanisms

  - neural mechanisms can be damaged by illnesses where the immune system becomes diminished - such as lyme disease, influenza and throat infections

  - can be neurochemical (unregulated levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin or dopamine)

  - can be neurophysiological (overactive orbitofrontal cortex creates anxiety, overactive basal ganglia linked to compulsion production)
• give 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of the genetic explanation of OCD

  + Nestadt reviewed twin studies in humans and found that 68% of MZ twins and 31% of DZ twins both had OCD, suggesting there is a genetic link to OCD

  + the SERT gene malfunction has been found in two unrelated families, where 6 out of the 7 members had OCD

  
  

  - concordence rate between MZ twins is not 100% meaning there must be some environmental influence, and genes alone are not a sufficient explanation

  - Grootheest et al (2005) found that OCD originating in childhood is more likely to have a genetic component than OCD originating in adulthood suggesting there are different types of OCD with different causes
• give 1 strength and 2 weaknesses of the neural explanation of OCD

  + there is empirical evidence which supports the neural explanation - saxena and rauch (2000) used brain imaging techniques to show an association between increased activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and OCD symptoms - faulty neural mechanisms linked to OCD

  
  

  - it is difficult to determine a cause and effect relationship between the decreased levels of serotonin/ increased levels of dopamine or activity in the orbito-frontal cortex and OCD

  - there may be a genetic component to the neural mechanisms underlying OCD - eg malfunctions of the SERT and COMT gene causing altered neurotransmitter levels
• outline biological treatments of OCD

  -SSRI's block the receptor cells on receiving neurones at receptor sites, preventing the absorption of serotonin - meaning the serotonin can remain in the synapse to regulate feelings of low mood

  - Tricyclics block the transporter mechanisms that reabsorb serotonin AND noradrenaline, allowing them to remain in the synapse to reduce feelings of anxiety and low mood

  - Benzodiazepines are used to reduce anxiety by increasing the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA, slowing down the activity of the central nervous system, providing a calming affect
• give 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of biological treatments for OCD

  + drug treatments are relatively cheap, dont require a therapist to administer them and are a relatively user friendly form of treatment

  + Julien (2007) reviewed research into the effectiveness of SSRI's and found that between 50-80% of patients show a reduction of OCD symptoms due to use of SSRI's

  
  

  - patients may experience severe side effects as a result of drug therapy, including suicidal thoughts, sleep disturbance and loss of appetite- may take trial and error to find a drug that works for a patient

  - drug therapy does not 'cure' OCD, but only treats the symptoms- meaning patients must take them for the rest of their lives
• outline the behavioural characteristics of phobias

  panic behaviours - such as crying and screaming

  avoidance behaviours - such as avoiding contact with phobic stimulus
• outline the cognitive characteristics of phobias

  selective attention - cannot look away from phobic stimulus

  irrational beliefs

  cognitive distortions towards perception of phobic stimulus

  insight that extreme anxiety is exaggerated
• outline the emotional characteristcs of phobias

  high levels of anxiety and a strong emotional response to the phobic stimulus
• outline the behaviourist explanation of phobias (two process model)

  - phobias are extreme emotional responses to stimuli caused by learned environmental experiences

  
  

  TWO PROCESS MODEL

  phobia is acquired by classical conditioning

  - the unconditioned stimulus (eg loud noise) is paired with the neutral stimulus (eg balloon), creating a conditioned stimulus (phobia of balloons) which produces a conditioned response (fear)

  phobia is maintained by operant conditioning

  - removal and avoidance of the unpleasant stimulus creates a calming response , negatively reinforcing the phobia
• how does Watson and Rayner's "little albert" study support the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias


  - 11 month albert was given various stimuli to play with, including a white rat to which he showed no fear response

  - Watson and Rayner then induced a fear response into albert by striking a metal bar with a hammer every time he went to touch the white rat, continued for 3 months

  - after the 3 months, every time albert was then shown the rat, he would scream, cry and try to crawl away (fear response)

  - albert had been conditioned into a phobia of white rats
• give 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of the two process model to explaining phobias

  + the idea of classical conditioning creating a phobia is supported by the case study of little albert

  + behaviourist treatments adressing phobias are seen as effective, such as systematic desensitisation

  
  

  - not everyone who experiences a traumatic event will go on to develop a phobia, meaning there must be a further explanation (genetic vulnerability??)

  - ignores the evolutionary explanation (seligman) - phobias are more easily acquired for factors that have been a source of danger in the evolutionary past such as snakes
• outline systematic desensitisation as a treatment of phobias

  the patient is gradually counter conditoned to feel relaxation as opposed to fear of the phobic stimulus based upon the idea of reciporcal inhibitionthat fear and relaxation cannot exist simultaneosly

  - the patient learns relaxation techniques and gradually faces a hierarchy of exposure to the phobic stimulus , starting from least feared to most feared
• outline flooding as a treatment for phobias

  the patient is exposed to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus straight away with no avoidance option. as their extreme levels of anxiety cannot be maintained, they fall and the patient realises the phobic stimulus is harmless
• give 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias

  + research evidence supports SD as an effective treatment for phobias - Gilroy et al (2003) found patients who were treated for a spider phobias with 3 45 minute sessions of SD felt lower levels of anxiety at both 3 and 33 months after the treatment (assessed using questionnaires)

  + less trauma involved than other treatments such as flooding, and provides a relaxing environment for patients - more willing

  
  

  - hard to treat phobias where exposure to the phobic stimulus is difficult in a clinical setting, such as a fear of flying

  - as phobias create extreme emotional reactions, exposing patients to phobic stimulus may be psychologically harmful, even when using the fear hierarchy
• give 1 strength and 2 weaknesses of flooding as a treatment for phobias

  + cost effective treatment compared to cognitive therapies and systematic desensitisation - Ourgrin compared flooding to cognitive therapies and found it to be cheaper as phobias could be cured in just one session

  
  

  - creates extreme anxiety levels which can lead to panic attacks, which may cause psychological harm especially in children

  - not suitable for all patient demographics, such as people with heart or lung conditions, as high anxiety levels will increase heart and breathing rate
• outline the behavioural characteristics of depression

  - poor personal hygiene due to reduced washing habits

  - weight changes (sudden significant increase or decrease in weight)

  - sleep pattern disturbance

  - loss of energy

  - social impairment
• outline the cognitive characteristics of depression

  - thoughts of death

  - poor memory

  - delusional thinking

  - reduced concentration
• outline the emotional characteristics of depression

  - constant depressed mood

  - feelings of worthlessness

  - loss of enthusiasm
• what are the 3 types of schemas individuals with depression may have

  - ineptness schemas (make people with depression expect to fail)

  - self-blame schemas (make people with depression feel responsible for their misfortunes)

  - negative self-evaluation schemas (make people with depression feel worthless)
• outline Beck's negative triad as an explanation for depression (draw)


  - individuals develop a cognitive vulnerability to depression as a result of automatic faulty cognitive mechanisms

  - may include ineptness schemas (make people with depression expect to fail), self-blame schemas (make people with depression feel responsible for their misfortunes), and negative self-evaluation schemas (make people with depression feel worthless)

  - these develop in childhood or adolescence, when authority figures place unrealistic demands on an individual and are highly critical of them

  - this includes negative views about the world, negative views about the future and negative views about oneself

  
• give 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of the cognitive approach to explaining depression

  + there is lots of research evidence supporting the idea cognitive vulnerability being linked to the onset of depression- studies showing depressives selectively attend to negative stimuli

  + a high degree of success has been achieved in treating depression with cognitive therapies in comparison to therapies based on other explanations, providing support for the cognitive explanation

  
  

  - there is less success to explaining and treating mania in bipolar depression, lessening support for the cognitive explanation as a global explanation of depression - different types of depression with different causes

  - some critics believe that not all depressive have a distorted view of their own abilities, and although they may focus on negative aspects of a situation they do understand events accurately and dont show the negative biases suggested by Beck
• outline Ellis' ABC model as an explanation for depression


  - depression is a consequence of the interpretation an individual has towards the events in their life

  A - the activating event - something happening in the environment around an individual

  B - the belief system - the belief an individual holds towards the event or situation

  C - the consequence - an emotional response to the belief EG feelings of worthlessness
• how do cognitive therapies treat depression?

  - modify maladaptive thought processes in order to alter behavioural and emotional states
• outline cognitive behavioural therapy as a treatment for depression


  - CBT aims to treat depression in patients by assisting them to identify irrational and maladaptive thoughts and challenge/reconstruct them, reducing depressive symptoms

  -often involves therapists setting 'homework' for their patients by assigning them as a 'scientist' to generate a hypothesis to test the validity of their irrational thoughts and evaluating the evidence to dismantle them