Psychopathhology

• What are the 4 Definitions of Abnormality?

  -Statistical infrequency

  -Deviation from social norms

  -Failure to function adequately

  -Deviation from ideal mental health
• Explain Statistical Infrequency (Definitions of Abnormality)

  -How often we come across it

  -Stats = Numbers

  -Usual behaviours are normal

  -If a small number of people have a certain behaviour, it's statistically infrequent

  
  

  >Eg; Low IQ
• What is Normal Distribution?


  When the majority of people's scores cluster around the average (Eg; IQ)
• Explain Deviation of Social Norms (Definitions of Abnormality)

  -Norms specific to the culture we live in

  -Few behaviours are universally abnormal (such as murder)

  -Abnormal due to breaching social norms

  -Our culture sees LGBTQ as normal now, but in Brunei they kill homosexuals by stoning them to death

  
  

  >Eg; Antisocial Personality Disorder (Psychopathy)

  >We make the social judgement that they're abnormal as they don't meet our moral standards
• Strength of Statistical Infrequency (Applications)

  -Usefulness

  -Used in clinical practice, as part of a formal diagnosis & to assess the severity of someone's symptoms

  -Low IQ can help diagnose Intellectual Disability Disorder

  -Beck's Depression Inventory is used to indicate severe depression (uses stat infreq)
• Weakness of Statistical Infrequency (Can be Positive)

  -Can have statistically infrequent characteristics that are seen as positive

  -High IQ wouldn't be seen as abnormal, or low BDI depression score

  -Unusuality doesn't make somebody abnormal

  -Never sufficient at assessing/diagnosing issues
• Strength of Deviation of Social Norms (Applications)

  -Usefulness

  -Used in clinical practice

  -Main characteristic of APD is failure to conform to socially acceptable, ethical behaviour

  -Helps to diagnose it

  -Shows deviation from social norms has value in psychiatry
• Limitation of Deviation of Social Norms (Cultural/Situational Relativism)

  -Norms vary globally

  -Social norms are different across different cultures & situations

  -Stealing bread to feed a family is seen as good, whereas stealing generally is seen as bad and against social norms

  -Cultures have different norms, such as LGBTQ

  -Therefore lacks universality as it can't be globally applied

  -Therefore reducing it's generalisability
• Explain Failure to Function Adequately (Definitions of Abnormality)

  -Can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life

  -Might decide that someone isn't functioning adequately when they can't maintain basic standards of nutrition & hygiene

  -May also consider it if they can't maintain relationships/jobs

  
  

  Rosenhan & Seligman (1989) - Additional Signs

  >No longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules (eg; personal space)

  >Experiences severe personal distress

  >Behaviour becomes irrational/dangerous to themselves or others
• Strength of Failure to Function Adequately (Threshold)

  -Represents a sensible threshold for when someone needs to get professional help

  -Many people experience mental disorder symptoms at some point in life

  -Many people downplay symptoms

  -When they start failing to function adequately, it's a good indicator of someone needing help (noticed/referred)

  -Means treatment can be targeted to those who need it most
• Limitation of Failure to Function Adequately (Discrimination & Social Control)


  -Limitation of FFA

  -Easy to label non-standard lifestyle choices as abnormal

  -Can be hard top say when someone's failing to function adequately (subjective)

  -Not having a job/house may be seen as bad, but it could be personal choice

  -Eg; people choose to live on a boat with no job, but may just be personal preference & totally normal.

  -Also those who do high-risk sports could be seen as a danger to themselves, but it doesn't mean they're abnormal

  -Means unusual choices from people are resulting in inaccurate labels, restricting their freedom of choice
• Explain Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

  -Proposed by Jahoda (1958)

  -8 criteria to show we're in ideal mental health

  
  

  1. No symptoms/Distress

  2. Rational & Perceive people accurately

  3. Can self-actualise (potential)

  4. Cope with stress

  5. Realistic view of the world

  6. Good self-esteem & lack guilt

  7. Independent of other people

  8. Can successfully work, love & enjoy leisure
• Strength of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health (Comprehensive)

  -Comprehensive Definition of Ideal Mental Health

  -Range of criteria

  -Covers most reasons to why we may seek mental health help

  -Mental health can be discussed meaningfully with professionals, may take different theoretical views

  >Provides a checklist against we can assess ourselves

  >Can help people get more focused help from therapists
• Limitation of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health (Cultural Bias)

  -Jahoda's criteria includes 'independent of others'

  -Not applicable across all cultures

  -Collectivist Cultures, such as India, all rely on one-another and have strong family units

  -Independence is often seen as abnormal in those cultures

  -Only considers individualist cultures, such as USA, where independence is valued as an important trait

  -Means it's hard to apply the concept from one culture to another
• What is a phobia?


  An irrational fear of an object or situation
• 3 BEHAVIOURAL Characteristics of Phobias

  1. Panic

  >Panic responses; crying, screaming, running away

  
  

  2. Avoidance

  >Try to prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus

  
  

  3. Endurance

  >Person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus

  >Arachnophobia; may stay in the room, just distanced
• 3 EMOTIONAL Characteristics of Phobias

  1. Anxiety

  >Phobias are anxiety disorders

  >Prevents relaxing, difficult to experience positive emotions

  
  

  2. Fear

  >Fear is the immediate & unpleasant response we encounter when we think about a phobic stimulus

  >More intense, but shorter periods

  
  

  3. Unreasonable Emotions

  >Much greater than normal /Disproportionate

  >Eg; Screaming at a tiny spider
• 3 COGNITIVE Characteristics of Phobias

  1. Selective attention to the phobic stimulus

  >Get hyper focused onto the stimulus

  
  

  2. Irrational beliefs

  >Bad beliefs about the stimulus

  
  

  3. Cognitive distortions

  >Inaccurate/Unrealistic perceptions
• 3 BEHAVIOURAL Characteristics of Depression

  1. Activity Levels

  >Reduced energy, stop being active

  
  

  2. Disruption to sleep & eating behaviour

  >Reduced/Increased sleep

  >Appetite increase/decrease

  
  

  3. Aggression & Self Harm

  >Irritable and aggressive

  >Leads to physical aggression to themselves
• 3 Emotional Characteristics of Depression

  1. Lowered mood

  
  

  2. Anger

  
  

  3. Lowered self-esteem
• 3 COGNITIVE Characteristics of Depression

  1. Poor concentration

  
  

  2. Dwelling on the negative

  >See glass as half empty

  
  

  3. Absolutist thinking

  >See things as all-good or all-bad
• 3 BEHAVIOURAL characteristics of OCD

  1. Repetitive Compulsions

  >Eg; handwashing

  
  

  2. Compulsions to reduce anxiety

  
  

  3. Avoidance

  >Stay away from situations that may trigger their OCD
• 3 EMOTIONAL characteristics of OCD

  1. Anxiety and distress

  
  

  2. Depression

  
  

  3. Guilt and disgust

  >Over random things
• 3 COGNITIVE Characteristics of OCD

  1. Obsessive thoughts

  
  

  2. Cognitive coping strategies

  >Eg; praying or meditating

  
  

  3. Insight into excessive anxiety

  >People know they have irrational obsessions
• What is the Two Process Model?


  -States that phobias are acquired (learnt) by CLASSICAL conditioning

  -Continue due OPERANT conditioning
• Who did a study on Little Albert?

  Watson and Rayner
• Findings of Watson & Raynor's classical conditioning study

  LITTLE ALBERT

  -Created a conditioned stimulus of loud banging

  -Created a conditioned response of fear to the rat
• Explain maintenance of phobias through operant conditioning

  -Responses from classical conditioning decline over time, but operant conditioning occurs

  -Operant occurs when our behaviour is REINFORCED or PUNISHED

  
  

  >Reinforcement increases frequency of behaviour

  
  

  >Negative reinforcement = Avoiding situation

  >Avoidance rewards them with a decrease in anxiety, so they continue to do it (reinforces the phobia)
• Strength of Two Process Model (Application)

  -Applies to exposure therapies

  -Systematic desensitisation, flooding

  -Phobias maintained by the avoidance of the stimulus

  -Preventing avoidance = Can't reinforce phobia

  -Applies to therapies

  -Value of two process model
• Limitation of Two Process Model (Cognitive aspects of phobias)

  -Doesn't account for cognitive aspects of phobias

  -Key behaviour of phobias is avoidance

  -They aren't responses, theyre a key cognitive component

  -Explains avoidance BEHAVIOUR but not PHOBIC COGNITIONS

  -Doesn't completely explain the symptoms of phobias
• Supportive Research of Two Process Model (Jongh et al)

  -73% of people who fear the dentist had a traumatic experience

  -Compared to control group of people with low dental anxiety, only 21% had traumatic event

  -Confirms association between stimulus and UCR
• What is Systematic Desensitisation?

  A behavioural therapy designed to reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of Classical conditioning. Suffers are cured if they learn to relax in presence of phobic stimulus.

  
  

  It is impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time (counter-conditioning)
• What are the 3 processes of Systematic Desensitisation?

  1. ANXIETY HIERARCHY

  >Put together by client & therapist

  >List of situations relating to phobic stimulus provoking anxiety

  >Ordered least to most frightening

  
  

  2. RELAXATION

  >Client taught to relax deeply (counter-conditioning, can't be relaxed and scared at the same time)

  >Breathing exercises, mental imagery techniques etc

  
  

  3. EXPOSURE

  >When relaxed, exposed to stimulus

  >Starting at bottom of Hierarchy (pictures of spiders)

  >Stays relaxed as they move up the hierarchy
• Strength of Systematic Desensitisation (Research, effective)

  -Base for it's effectiveness

  -Gilroy followed 42 people who had 3x SD 45 min sessions

  -At 3 & 33 months, less fearful the control group treated with relaxation without exposure

  -Shows effectiveness and likely helps with phobias
• Strength of Systematic Desensitisation (Learning Disabilities)

  -Can be used to treat people with learning disabilities

  -People requiring treatment may have a learning disabilities

  -This means they can't do therapies requiring complex thoughts

  -May also feel confused/distressed by trauma in flooding

  
  

  >SD often most appropriate for people w/ learning disabilities
• What is Flooding?


  -Exposing patients to their phobic stimulus straight away

  -Immediate exposure and very fearful situation
• How does flooding work?

  -It stops phobic responses very quickly by the patient learning that the phobic stimulus is harmless, (EXTINCTION)

  -CS stimulus encountered without UCS

  
  

  >Must get full informed consent as it's traumatic

  >Must ensure they're fully prepared before session
• Strength of Flooding (Cost)

  -Cost Effective

  -Saves money for the NHS

  -Cost effective as it works aswell as being cheap

  -Can work in ONE session

  -More people can be cheaply treated for it compared to expensive therapies such as Systematic Desensitisation
• Limitation of Flooding (Traumatic)

  -Very traumatic

  -Much more stressful than SD

  -Raises ethical issues as psychologists willingly cause stress

  -If it fails, the client will AVOID which will only REINFORCE the phobia (two process model)

  -Higher dropout rates for flooding

  -Overall, therapists may avoid the treatment
• Explain Beck's Negative Triad (depression)

  -COGNITIVE approach to explaining depression

  -Due to the way they think