approaches

• outline the process of introspection (wundt)

  - introspection is a objective analysis of an individual's thoughts and conscious experience

  - participants would report their experience/reaction in response to a stimulus - often a metronome, and break down this experience into its component parts (eg emotions and sensations)

  - all participants would be given standardised instructions which allowed procedures to be replicated
• outline wundt's contribution to the emergence of psychology as a science

  - wundt opened the first institute of experimental psychology and published one of the first books on psychology, both helping to establish the subject as a scientific discipline

  - wundt's objective was to document and describe the nature of human consciousness by isolating his own thoughts and breaking them down into their constituent parts, known as structuralism

  - established introspection as a scientific method using controlled conditions and standardised instructions
• give two strengths of wundt's contribution to the emergence of psychology as a science (incl. introspection)

  + introspection could be considered the first scientific psychological practice, as all introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions, using the same stimulus each time; and the same standardised instructions were issued to all participants which allowed procedures to be replicated

  
  

  + wundt paved the way for psychology to be established as its own scientific discipline, which has over time led to more funding and resources becoming available so psychologists can better understand human behaviour
• what are two weaknesses of wundt's contribution to the emergence of psychology as a science (incl. introspection)

  - although introspection is an objective method of breaking down the human conscious experience, participants still had to report their thoughts which is SUBJECTIVE, meaning although standardised instructions were given to all participants, the findings would differ, making it difficult to establish objective principles of behaviour

  
  

  - can be argued that greater contributions to psychology were made by early behaviourists such as pavlov and skinner, who used more objective and scientific methods by means of observable behaviour to produce more reliable results
• why did skinner criticise introspection (AO3)

  he saw it as subjective, because the findings differed between individuals, which made it difficult to establish objective principles of behaviour
• what are the 4 assumptions of the behaviourist/learning approach

  - only observable behaviour can be measured scientifically

  - there is no biological influence on behaviour - all humans are born as a 'blank slate'

  - all behaviour is learned

  - research done on animal behaviour can be extrapolated to humans
• outline the concept of classical conditioning (Pavlov)

  - pavlov suggested learning occurs when a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflex response

  
  

  - BEFORE CONDITIONING

  - the neutral stimulus generates no response

  - the unconditioned stimulates generates an unconditioned reflex response

  
  

  DURING CONDITIONING

  - the neutral stimulus becomes paired with the unconditioned stimulus, which generates the unconditioned response

  
  

  AFTER CONDITIONING

  - the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, which generates a conditioned response
• what are the 4 features that are important in classical conditioning

  timing - if the interval between the neutral stimulus being presented and the unconditioned stimulus being presented is too long, then conditioning does not take place

  
  

  extinction - the conditioned response will not be permanent if the conditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the unconditioned stimulus

  
  

  spontaneous recovery - following extinction, if the conditioned stimulus is presented with the unconditioned stimulus again, then they will be associated again quickly

  
  

  stimulus generalisation - once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond in the same way to other stimuli which are similar to the conditioned stimulus
• outline pavlov's research into classical conditioning

  - pavlov was investigating the digestive system of dogs, who automatically salivated when they saw food, but saw that they also salivated when his assistant came through the door with food for them

  
  

  - discovered that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell (previously neutral stimulus), if that bell was paired with food (unconditioned stimulus), which caused the dogs to salivate (unconditioned response)

  
  

  - every time pavlov would feed the dogs, he would ring a bell, until eventually the dogs learned to associate the bell with food, and would salivate when the bell was rung even if there was no food (conditioned response)
• outline the method and findings of the little albert study of classical conditioning (Watson and Rayner)

  - supported the idea that the learning approach can be applied to humans - human emotional responses can be learnt through classical conditioning

  
  

  - presented 11 month old albert with various stimuli, including a white rat, to which he showed no fear response

  - a fear reaction was then introduced to albert every time he went to touch the white rat, by striking a metal bar with a hammer

  - this process was repeated over 3 months, and it was found that after the 3 months, when shown the white rat, albert would scream, cry and try to crawl away (fear response) - albert had learned to associate the white rat with the sound of the hammer striking the metal bar which produced a fear response

  - this fear response was also generalised to other white fluffy stimuli
• outline the concept of operant conditioning (skinner)

  - skinner suggested that behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences, and any behaviour that produces a pleasurable outcome will be repeated again in similar circumstances (law of effect)

  
  

  - REINFORCEMENT increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated (positive = rewarding the behaviour by GIVING something, negative = rewarding the behaviour by REMOVING a negative stimulus

  
  

  - PUNISHMENT decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated (positive = GIVING a punishment, negative = taking away something enjoyable)
• outline skinner's research into operant conditioning

  - skinner researched the effect of operant conditioning on behaviour in rats

  - the rat was placed in a glass box, containing a speaker and lights as a form of stimuli, a lever connected to a food dispenser tube, and an electric metal grid on the flood

  
  

  - POSITIVE reinforcement displayed rat learnt that when it pulled the lever, a pellet of food would be released - rat would continue to repeat this action as long as food would be released

  - NEGATIVE reinforcement was displayed as the rat later learnt to press the lever to avoid the negative stimulus of an electric shock from the metal grid
• give two strengths of the learning approach (can be applied to classical AND operant conditioning)

  - behaviourists use SCIENTIFIC controlled and objective methods in their research (eg rat was placed in a box to control other variables that could have influenced its behaviour) - experiments are easily replicable which increases the scientific creditability of psychology

  
  

  - practical applications - led to the developments of treatments and therapies to decrease undesirable behaviours on the basis of conditioning - such as flooding for a treatment of phobias
• give two weaknesses of the learning approach (can be applied to classical AND operant conditioning)

  - ethical issues in research (harm to the rat in skinner's experiment - likely would not be able to conduct today), and extreme psychological harm to little albert, without the knowledge of his mother

  
  

  - issues with extrapolation - behaviourists assume that all animal behaviour can be applied to humans, and therefore much of their research has been carried out on animals, however this ignores the complex cognitive thought processes that humans have and animals do not, as well as how the different environments that humans and animals exist in may influence their behaviour (rats still in primitive environment)
• outline social learning theory + how it leads to behaviour being reproduced

  - behaviour is learnt through our environment - the observation of others and reinforcement or punishment that they receive

  
  

  - individual IDENTIFIES themselves with a role model they want to imitate, and observes their behaviour

  - if the role model is rewarded for their behaviour, this acts as VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT for the observer

  - the individual makes a mental representation of the likelihood that they will also be rewarded if they choose to IMITATE the rolemodel's behaviour

  - if MODELLING the rolemodel's behaviour results in the individual being rewarded, then they will continue modelling this behaviour
• what are the 4 mediational processes of social learning theory and why are they important

  - bandura suggested that we DO NOT automatically imitate any observed behaviour of a role model, even if it is vicariously reinforced - but that there are cognitive processes which determine whether an individual will model the observed behaviour

  - ATTENTION - the extent to which we notice the role model's behaviour

  - RETENTION - how well the behaviour is remembered

  - REPRODUCTION- the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

  - MOTIVATION - the will to perform the behaviour, often determined by vicarious reinforcement or punishmentSee an expert-written answer!We have an expert-written solution to this problem!
• outline bandura's research into social learning theory

  - 36 boys and 36 girls were matched into pairs based on levels of aggression, then one child from each pair was randomly allocated into one of two groups

  - the children then observed the behaviour of an adult rolemodel playing with toys, including a bobo doll

  - the children in group one watched the rolemodel playing aggressively with the bobo doll (hitting and shouting at it) and the children in group two watched the adult rolemodel playing nicely with the bobo doll

  - after observing the role model, the children were taken to a room where they were not allowed to play with toys, to arouse aggression, but after 20 minutes were allowed to play with toys

  - found that children in the group that observed aggressive behaviour acted more aggressively when playing with their toys, including with the bobo doll

  - found that there was a greater level of imitation if the role model was the same gender as the child
• give two strengths of social learning theory

  - support from research evidence - Bobo doll, which has since been applied to explain real world behaviours, - such as how children learn from those around them - led to the importance of mindsets such as parents providing an example of ideal behaviour to their children

  
  

  - soft determinism, and a more interactionist approach than behaviourism - acknowledges the ability humans have to cognitively process information when decision making, by recognising mediational processes - FREE WILL to choose whether behaviour is replicated - agrees with our legal system
• give two weaknesses of social learning theory

  - falls on the nurture side of the nature nurture debate - ignores compelling arguments that biological factors can also influence our behaviour (compare with biological approach)

  
  

  - decreased validity of the bobo doll experiment - can be argued that the main purpose of a bobo doll is to strike it, so the children who were observed acting aggressively were not doing so because of SLT, but because that was how they thought they were 'expected' to behave - if this is true bandura's research tells us little about how children learn aggression
• what are the 4 assumptions of the cognitive approach

  - we use schemas to help us process new information

  - thought processes should be concluded from observable behaviours studied scientifically

  - we can use theoretical and computer models to explain how the mind processes information

  - an explanation for human behaviour is internal thought processes
• outline the cognitive approach

  - the cognitive approach is the scientific study of internal mental processes behind human behaviour

  - although these mental processes cannot be observed directly, psychologists will make inferences of an individual's internal mental processes on the basis of their behaviour
• outline the role of schemas in the cognitive approach and outline the benefits and disadvantages of having schemas

  - schemas are packages of information developed through experience, which act as a mental framework for the interpretation of new information perceived by the brain. This helps us to respond appropriately to situations

  
  

  - benefits - allows us to process new information and situations quickly and respond appropriately by filling in the gaps with previously acquired knowledge - particularly useful in dangerous environments

  
  

  - disadvantages - may lead to perceptual distortion of a new situation, due to having an already established schema, making it difficult to avoid stereotyping - may lead to people reacting inappropriately
• outline the role of theoretical and computer models in the cognitive approach (give an example of each)

  - theoretical models are used to suggest how information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of linear stages - this allows psychologists to produce testable theories that can be studied scientifically

  - EXAMPLE - the multi store model of memory is a linear model that suggests information is processed in 3 separate stores of memory

  
  

  - computer models are used as an analogy of how the brain functions, using concepts such as central processing of information, coding of information into thoughts, output (behavioural response) and 'stores' that hold information

  - EXAMPLE - the working memory model (central executive receives incoming information from the environment and delagates it into one of the slave systems to be processed)
• outline the link between the cognitive approach and the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

  - cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the biological structures of the brain and how they are involved with internal mental processes - how brain structures influence cognitive thoughts

  
  

  - cognitive neuroscience uses brain imaging techniques such as MRI and PET scans to investigate brain activity when performing specific activities - allowing for the mapping of specific areas of the brain to specific processes (LOCALISATION OF FUNCTION)

  - these brain scanning techniques allow cognitive psychologists to identify the neurological basis of mental processes - such as the separate stores of long term memory (Tulving was able to distinguish between episodic and semantic LTM because of their locations on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex - different areas of the brain lit up when being observed recalling different types of LTM)See an expert-written answer!We have an expert-written solution to this problem!
• give two strengths of the cognitive approach

  - soft determinism - although the cognitive approach suggests that our behaviour is determined by our internal mental processes and schemas developed in previous experience, we are still able to 'think' and consciously process information before responding to a stimulus - element of free will (agrees with legal system)

  
  

  - has been applied to many other areas of psychology, where we now have a greater understanding of internal mental processes that impact all areas of our lives - EXAMPLE - in social psychology - schemas can help to explain how we form impressions of other people OR cognitive approach to explaining depression has led to CBT
• give two weaknesses of the cognitive approach

  - ignores the impact of emotion and motivation, that is a driving force behind human behaviour - for example there is research which suggests that FRUSTRATION leads to AGGRESSIVE behaviour

  
  

  - uses overly abstract concepts, such as schemas and analogies, as ways of indirectly studying and inferring the cognitive basis of behaviour - this reliance on inference means that some ideas in cognitive psychology may seem too abstract and not have enough supporting empirical evidence of such mechanisms. this reduces the potential practical applications of cognitive research, as it remains mainly theoretical
• what are the 3 assumptions of the biological approach

  - the genes that an individual possesses influences their behaviour

  - neurochemistry, evolution and hormones also influence human behaviour

  - unwanted behaviour can be modified or removed with biological treatments such as drug therapy
• outline the influence of genes (genotype and phenotype) on behaviour

  - genes are sections of DNA that carry information for a particular characteristic, which are passed down from an individual's parents

  - biological approach suggests that genotype AND phenotype influence our behaviour

  - genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism - the instructions for a particular characteristic

  - phenotype is the characteristic displayed as a result of the interaction of a gene and the environment
• outline the use of twin studies in the biological approach of psychology

  - twin studies are used to establish a genetic link for a particular characteristic

  - will look at the CONCORDANCE RATE (how frequently a behaviour or disorder is shared by both twins) for monozygotic and dizygotic twins

  - monozygotic twins share 100% of their DNA, and dizygotic twins share 50% of their DNA

  - since the only difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins is how genetically similar they are, if the concordance rate is higher for monozygotic twins it indicates there is a genetic influence on that behaviour
• outline the influence of biological structures on behaviour

  - biological structures that are suggested to influence behaviour are the central and peripheral nervous system, neurones, and the endocrine system

  - the CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which transmits information to and from the environment, and therefore controls involuntary movement

  - the PNS consists of all the nerves and neurones throughout the body, which transmit information between the CNS and environment, controlling voluntary movement

  - NEURONES are a type of nerve cell which transmit information between the nervous systems and the environment, allowing a response to be carried out via muscles and glands

  - the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM controls the transfer and secretion of hormones throughout the body - pituitary gland controls the secretion of hormones from other glands - biological psychologists suggest that hormone levels have an influence on our behaviour (EG stress response OR aggression)
• outline the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour

  - neurochemistry refers to chemicals within the central nervous system, known as neurotransmitters

  - neurotransmitters control the transmission of electrical impulses in the brain, which result in actions being carried out, leading biological psychologists to believe that they have an influence on our behaviour
• outline the influence of evolution on behaviour

  - biological psychologists suggest that human behaviour has evolved in the same way as physical characteristics

  - if a particular characteristic increased the chance that an individual would be able to survive and reproduce, then this characteristic would be passed down to that individual's offspring, and down further generations if it was still advantageous

  - this has been used to explain universal behaviours, such as men seeking women who appear younger, as they are more likely to be fertile so increase the chances of successful reproduction
• give two strengths of the biological approach

  - practical applications - many mental disorders have been identified to have a biological influence, such as OCD or schizophrenia, which has led to the development of effective biological therapies in the form of drug therapy to moderate the symptoms of these disorders by regulating specific neurotransmitters

  
  

  - uses scientific methods for investigation - for example, brain scanning techniques, drug trials and twin studies limit the chance of subjectivity in the biological approach, and provide empirical evidence to support the biological nature of certain behaviours
• give two weaknesses of the biological approach

  - biological determinism - suggests that humans have absolutely no control over their behaviour/ no free will - implications for the legal system as this can be argued as a defence for criminal behaviour - EG people could use genetics as a defence for violent crimes

  
  

  - twin studies cannot differentiate between nature and nurture, as monozygotic twins are more likely to be raised in the same environment than dizygotic twins (who could be different genders), therefore the higher concordance rate may be due to the shared experiences between MZ twins that may be less common in DZ twins
• what are the 4 assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

  - all behaviour is caused by unconscious internal conflicts and innate drives (psychic determisim)

  - there are 3 levels of consciousness - conscious, preconscious and unconscious

  - individuals are unaware of their unconscious, but it can be inferred through psychoanalysis

  - abnormality is the result of psychological causes
• outline the role of the unconscious in the psychodynamic approach

  - freud suggested that the mind consists of 3 parts, the conscious mind, the preconscious mind and the unconscious mind

  - unconscious mind contains drives and instincts that the individual is unaware of, but are the driving force behind their behaviour - such as sexual drives

  - unconscious also contains any threatening or disturbing memories that have been repressed because the conscious mind cannot cope with them - protects the conscious mind from anxiety or trauma
• outline the 'structure of the personality' as explained by the psychodynamic approach

  - freud suggested that humans have a 'tripartite personality', consisting of 3 elements constantly in conflict with eachother

  - the ID is present at birth, and is driven by pleasure

  - the SUPEREGO is formed at the end of the phallic stage (around 6 years old), and is driven by morality

  - the EGO is formed during the first 3 years of life, and is driven by reality, often acting as a compromise between the id and the superego
• outline the 'defence mechanisms' as explained by the psychodynamic approach

  - freud suggested that defence mechanisms are deployed by the ego to protect itself from the constant conflicts, which cause the individual anxiety

  - repression occurs when an individual locks away their negative feelings in the unconscious mind, allowing the conscious mind to be free from anxiety

  - denial occurs when an individual refuses to accept reality to avoid dealing with negative or distressing feelings

  - displacement occurs when an individual transfers their negative feelings or emotions from their true source to a substitute target
• outline the 'psychosexual stages' as explained by the psychodynamic approach

  - freud suggested that individuals develop through a series of psychosexual stages, where they gain pleasure from different areas of the body in each stage

  - too much or too little gratification or unresolved conflicts in any one of these stages can result in mental illnesses

  ORAL (0-1)

  - focus of pleasure is the mouth (feeding)

  - unresolved conflicts in this stage can result in oral fixations such as biting nails or smoking

  
  

  ANAL (2-3)

  - focus of pleasure is the anus, child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces (toilet training)

  - unresolved conflicts can result in children becoming anally retentive if toilet training too strict or anally expulsive if toilet training not strict enough

  
  

  PHALLIC (3-6)

  - focus of pleasure is the genital area, child experiences oedipus complex or electra complex

  - unresolved conflicts can lead to homosexuality

  
  

  LATENCY (6-12)

  - sexuality is suspended for this period, as children focus on their new experiences

  
  

  GENITAL (12+)

  - sexual desires become conscious during puberty

  - unresolved conflicts will lead to difficulty forming friendships
• give two strengths of the psychodynamic approach