Methodologies

• lab experiments


  -conducted under controlled conditions that are artificial-involves the researcher manipulating the IV whilst measuring the DV

  -both an experimental and control condition-doesn't have to be carried out in a lab, just needs to be in a setting the researcher can control.
• what are strengths of lab experiments?

  High level of control- we can therefore infer that the IV caused the DV

  Easy to replicate- increasing reliability and allows reliability to be checked.
• what are weaknesses of lab experiments?

  Low ecological validity- does not reflect a real life setting making results less valid than in other settingsProblems regarding demand characteristics- if participants know they are being studied they may act in a certain way and affect validity.
• field experiments


  -an experiment conducted in a natural environment-the IV is still manipulated by the researcher so casual relationships can be formed-the DV is still measured-participants are unaware they are being researched
• what are strengths of field experiments?

  Higher ecological validity than lab experiments- because they are conducted in a real situation without the control from the experimenterLess demand characteristics as participants are usually unaware they are taking part- increases validity of results
• what are weaknesses of field experiments?

  Unethical- participants are unaware they are taking part in research and there is less chance that the researcher can reach out to debrief them

  More chance of extraneous variables affecting the results- because there is less control than in a lab environment.
• quasi and natural experiments

  -A quasi experiment is not a 'true' experiment because the researcher has not deliberately manipulated an IV and participants are not randomly allocated to an experimental or control condition-A natural experiment is a research method where the IV arises naturally, although the DV can still be measured in a lab or any other location. This method would be used when it is unethical to directly manipulate the IV.
• what are strengths of quasi/natural experiments?


  Allows research where the IV can't be manipulated for practical or unethical reasons- so a range of behaviour can be investigated.Allows researchers to investigate 'real' problems such as the effects of a disaster on health, which can help a greater amount of people in more situations
• what are weaknesses of quasi/natural experiments?

  Cannot demonstrate casual relationships because the IV isn't manipulated directly, so we cannot be sure the IV caused the DV.Threat to internal validity due to there being less control of extraneous variables that could be the reason for the DV rather than the IV.
• participant observation


  -a research method where the researcher takes on the role of a participant whilst observing other participants' behaviour around them-the researcher becomes part of the group and doesn't reveal who they are
• what are strengths of participant observations?

  Less chance of demand characteristics because participants do not know they are being observed by the researcher who is part of their group.Can research people who would otherwise be difficult to observe- so the researcher may end up finding out information they didn't know existed.
• what are weaknesses of participant observations?

  The researcher may suffer from observer bias- where the researchers expectations affect their perception of events and the become subjective.Unreliable findings because it is difficult to take notes during the observation, so data relies on memory.
• non-participant observation


  -when the researched records and records participants' behaviour without interfering in any way (from a distance)

  
  

  -the participants are not aware they are being observed

  
  

  -pre prepared categories are decided, and behaviour is recorded under the categories as and when it happens
• what are strengths of non-participant observations?

  Less chance of observer bias- the observer doesn't take part in the action, but instead watches from a distance.Researchers can see how participants behave rather than relying on self reports- which may produce more valid and reliable findings.
• what are weaknesses of non-participant observations?

  Less chance of observer bias- the observer doesn't take part in the action, but instead watches from a distance.Researchers can see how participants behave rather than relying on self reports- which may produce more valid and reliable findings.
• content analysis


  -a research method which involves exploration of behaviours to see what categories, codes or themes emerge, and tallying each time material fits a theme-it converts qualitative data into quantitative data, so it can be more easily compared (a type of observational study)-written or verbal material such as magazines, television programmes, websites and advertisements... are analysed-the sample is the artefacts being analysed
• strengths of content analysis

  Less chance of demand characteristics from participants and experimenter bias from the researcher in creating materials as the artefacts that are being analysed already exist.Can be replicated by others as long as the artefacts being analysed are available for other people- increase reliability.
• weaknesses of content analysis

  Observer bias can affect validity of findings as different observers might interpret the meanings of the categories in the coding system differently.Cannot draw cause and effect relationships because the authors of the artefacts are usually unknown and therefore cannot easily be questioned as to why or how the behaviour was explored.
• structured interviews


  -a research method that includes standardised questions which are known as an interview schedule, and are usually asked face to face-the interviewer has a pre-prepared set of questions that are asked in a fixed order-pre determined questions are used that elicit a verbal response
• strengths of structured interviews

  The same questions are used every time which make results easy to analyse.

  
  

  Replicable therefore more reliable because the same questions can be asked in the same way.
• weaknesses of structured interviews

  Can be restrictive because there is no chance to ask further questions. This could be frustrating to the participant if interesting or unexpected issues arise.Doesn't allow for 'spontaneous' questions, which may mean the interviewer is less responsive to the participant.
• questionnaires


  -a research method includes a list of written questions, which generate closed and/or open answers-these can be used in person, online or through other methods like postal-can produce qualitative or quantitative data or a mixture of both
• strengths of questionnaires


  Can be used to assess psychological variables that may not be obvious by just observing someone.Data can be collected from a large group of participants more quickly than interviewing them.
• weaknesses of questionnaires


  There is no guarantee that the participant is telling the truth.Different participants may interpret the same question in different ways.
• semi-structured interviews


  -a research method which involves asking a participant questions, usually face to face.-can be in the form of an interview schedule, however they could also follow up questions to expand on the answers.-start with predetermined questions, but further questions are developed as a response to the answers given.
• strengths of semi structured interviews

  More qualitative information can be gathered by the interviewer because they tailor the questions to the respondent's answers.High validity- because participants have the opportunity to fully express their true feelings/views.
• weaknesses of semi structured interviews

  The same questions are not used every time- makes it hared to analyse results and identify and trends.

  Not replicable- due to different questions asked each time- therefore unreliable.
• correlation


  -a research method that involves comparing two continuous variables (co-variables) to see if there is an association/relationship between them-a scatter diagram/graph can be used to illustrate correlations
• types or correlations and what they mean

  -a positive correlation means that high values of one variable are associated with high values of the other-a negative correlation means that high values of one variable are associated with low values of another-the strength of a relationship is measured with a correlation coefficient-the closer the coefficient is to 0 the weaker the coefficient, the closer the coefficient is to 1 (+1 or-1) the stronger it is.
• strengths of correlations


  Shows both direction and strength of a relationship which can then be used to make predictions about behaviour.Can be used when experiments are inappropriate- eg it would be unethical to manipulate stress and illness.
• weaknesses of correlations


  Only show whether there is a relationship; not how or why co-variables are related- there may be other external factors that explain the relationship.Difficult to establish cause and effect using a correlation.
• case studies


  -a method which involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon, which uses a descriptive analysis of a person, group or event-it is a holistic study through one or more methodologies that is usually longitudinal-uses many different research methods, such as interview, questionnaire or observation in order to achieve the required depth-most data collected is qualitative, but it can sometimes be quantitative
• strengths of case studies

  Produces rich, qualitative data which has high ecological validity because it is a study of a real life situation.Allows researchers to study cases they couldn't practically or ethically manipulate in an experiment.
• weaknesses of case studies

  Researcher bias- researchers can become too involved and lose their objectivity, so they may interpret data to 'fit in' with their own theories.Difficult to generalise findings beyond the individual/group studied as the sample is too small (low population validity).
• self reports


  -a method which involves a participant reporting on their own thoughts and feelings.-self report is a name used for methods that involve the participant reporting information about themselves.-whichever self report method is being used the questions tend to fall into two types; OPEN and CLOSED.these include:interviewsquestionnairesinventory (used to assess attributes like personality, intelligence or to diagnose)diaries
• open questions

  -allow participants to freely offer their opinion-more likely to produce qualitative data, which is in depth but difficult to analyse.
• closed questions


  -respondent has a limited response-more likely to produce quantitative data, which is easy to analyse but is shallow.
• strengths of self reports

  Can offer an insight into why people behave as they do, so there is less reason for researchers to guess reasons for behaviour.Qualitative information can be gathered.
• weaknesses of self reports

  Possible risk of social desirability bias (participants giving the response that they think will show them in the best possible light).People may not be able to recall accurately, especially if the self report method asks for details over an extended period of time.
• quantitative data


  -data that can be measured numerically by the psychologist so that statistical analysis can be completed