part 2

• Word Recognition – the process of identifying a unique pattern of letters
• Comprehension – the process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words.
• Phonological Awareness – the ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters.
• Knowledge-Telling Strategy – writing down information as it is retrieved from memory, a common practice for young writers.
• Knowledge-Transforming Strategy – deciding what information to include and how best to organize it to convey a point
• In progressing to Piaget’s concrete operations, children become less egocentric, rarely confuse appearances with reality, and are able to reverse their thinking.
• With the onset of formal-operational thinking, adolescents can think hypothetically and reason abstractly.
• In deductive reasoning, they understand that conclusions are based on logic, not on experience.
• Rehearsal and other memory strategies are used to transfer information from working memory, a temporary store of information, to long-term memory, a permanent store of knowledge.
• Hierarchical theories include both general intelligence and various specific skills, such as verbal and spatial ability
• Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences proposes nine distinct intelligences. Three are found in psychometric theories (linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial intelligence), but six are new (musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential intelligence)
• Gardner’s theory has stimulated research on nontraditional forms of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence.
• According to Robert Sternberg, intelligence is defined as using abilities to achieve short- and long-term goals and depends on three abilities: analytic ability to analyze a problem and generate a solution, creative ability to deal adaptively with novel situations, and practical ability to what solutions will work.
• Stereotype threat and test-taking skills also contribute to group differences.
• gifted children are those with high scores on IQ tests.
• Modern definitions of giftedness have been broadened to include exceptional talent in the arts
• Creativity is associated with divergent-thinking, in which the aim is to think in novel and unusual directions.
• The most common learning disability is developmental dyslexia, which involves difficulty reading individual words because children haven’t mastered language sounds.
• Prereading skills include knowing letters and the sounds associated with them
• Word recognition is the process of identifying a word. Beginning readers more often accomplish this by sounding out words; advance readers more often retrieve a word from long-term memory.