observations

• observation


  where a researcher observes and records participants' behaviour, but does not manipulate any variables
• strengths of observations

  • sees how people behave compared to how they say they behave
  • study variables that would be unethical to manipulate e.g. behaviour in prisons
  • useful as a pilot to generate hypothesis for future research
• weaknesses of observations

  • difficult to replicate
  • does not provide us with thoughts or feelings, only behaviour
  • no hypothesis and independent variable manipulating, so can't establish cause and effect
  • observer bias
  • observer effect
  • time consuming and requires careful preparation
• sampling method

  volunteer, self selected, random, snowball
• structured observations


  using predefined coding categories for behaviour e.g. Bandura
• strengths of structured observations

  • easier to record
  • easier to establish inter-rater reliability
• weaknesses of structured observations

  • reductionist
  • can reduce validity
  • open to observer bias
• unstructured


  recording everything observed during the observation
• strengths of unstructured

  • increases validity
  • applicable to a wide range of contexts
• weaknesses of unstructured

  • harder to record
  • harder to establish reliability
  • open to observer bias
• naturalistic


  observing participants in their natural environment - often used where it would be unethical to manipulate variables
• strengths of naturalistic

  • high ecological validity
• weaknesses of naturalistic

  • difficult to replicate
  • low levels of control
• controlled


  situation being contrived by the researcher - usually conducted in a laboratory setting
• strengths of controlled

  • easier to replicate
  • high levels of control
• weaknesses of controlled

  • low ecological validity
• covert


  participants do not know they are being observed
• strengths of covert

  • increases validity
  • less social desirability / demand characteristics
• weaknesses of covert

  • ethical issues
• overt


  participants do know they are being observed
• strengths of overt

  • reduces ethical issues
• weaknesses of overt

  • decreases validity
  • social desirability / demand characteristics
• participant


  the researcher is involved with the people they are observing
• strengths of participant

  • only way to observe behaviour (cults/gangs)
  • greater accuracy and detail
• weaknesses of participant

  • harder to remain objective
  • can influence behaviour, reducing validity
  • ethical issues
• non-participant


  the research remains separate from the person they are observing
• strengths of non-participant

  • easier to remain objective
  • no influence on behaviour
  • less ethical issues
• weaknesses of non-participant

  • can't observe certain behaviour
  • less detail and accuracy
• event sampling


  every occurence of behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded within a specified period of time
• strengths of event sampling

  • unlikely to miss behaviour unless too many behaviours are occurring at once
  • increases validity and reliability
• weaknesses of event sampling

  • only records the amount of time the behaviour occurs
  • can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once
  • can miss events not coded for
• time sampling


  behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specified time intervals e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds - Bandura
• strengths of time sampling

  • more representative over time
  • easier, more reliable observations
  • pattern of when it occurs can be seen
• weaknesses of time sampling

  • may miss behaviour due to not fitting into the time, reduces validity
• inter-rater reliability


  researchers observing the same behaviour and coding the behaviour in the same way
• low inter-rater reliability suggests

  • the coding of behaviours is either vague or lacks validity
  • they're not observing the same event
• behavioural categories


  clearly defined behaviours are identified, which can be observed and recorded. these may be placed on a checklist and tallied every time that behaviour occurs
• coding frames


  allow for more specific behaviours to be observed within a behaviour category. codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different subtype within a category