Approaches

• Wundt and introspection

  • aimed to describe the nature of human consciousness
  • pioneering method (first to conduct) of introspection - recorded own conscious thoughts, aimed to separate into reduced parts (reductionist)
  • isolating structure (structuralism)
  • controlled methods, standardised methods so can be replicated
• Wundt A03

  • (+) highly scientific (controlled and standardised so can be replicated in future)
  • (-) subjective as its self-report, unreliable as may not be truthful or be able to judge properly your own consciousness
  • (-) based on assumptions- criticised as uses inference so could be mistaken
• Behaviourist approach: Pavlov and Skinner

  • observed and measured behaviour, not mental processes
  • Pavlov‘s classical conditioning: association, dogs associated sound of bell (NS), with food (UCS) to result in salivation (CS)
  • Skinner’s operant conditioning: learn by consequence (positive reinforcement: reward for behaviour - makes behaviour repeated, negative reinforcement: avoid something unpleasant, punishment: unpleasant consequence), studied rats to show this (POS: pulled lever- received food pellet, NEG: pulled lever - stopped shocks)
• behaviourist A03

  • (+) scientific credibility: observed in a lab- controlled, has objectivity, and can be replicated
  • (+) token economy: can be used in reinforcing better behaviour in prisons, psych wards and can be applied to phobias
  • (-) mechanistic view on behaviour: emotions and conscious can decrease effects of reward/punishment/consequence (work bonus (reward) isn’t worth how the work environment makes them feel)
• Social Learning Theory

  • vicarious learning: observe and imitate
  • vicarious reinforcement: indirect learning, observation, imitation more likely when perceived reward for behaviour (positive reinforcing)
  • role of mediational processes (Bandura): ATTENTION- notices behaviour, RETENTION- how well behaviour is remembered, MOTOR REPRODUCTION- ability of observer to reproduce behaviour, MOTIVATION- the will to do it as of reward/punishment
  • identification- imitating role models (we identify with them), role model chosen via similarities/social status/attractiveness
• social learning theory A03

  (+) mediational processes: shows how we learn ourselves rather than directly tought by others

  (-) Bandura over-relied on lab research on children: BOBO DOLL STUDY - demand characteristics as thought that aggression was being expected of them to imitate

  (-) underestimates biological factors influence: testosterone influences aggression and is higher in boys
• Cognitive approach

  • internal mental processes, scientifically studied, cognitions are ‘private’ and cannot be observed so indirect study (inference)
  • theoretical models: cognitive system that follows input, storage and retrieval (multi-store model)
  • computer models: compares mind to computer (central processing unit- brain, concept of coding- formatting, and stores), useful development of artificial intelligence (AI)
• cognitive approach continued

  • role of schema: package of info/ideas, mental framework for interpreting incoming info (e.g a chair, we notices visual info to recognise and choose response - sitting), becomes more detailed and sophisticaTed with age, helps processing quickly (mental shortcut), can become distorted causing perceptual errors
• cognitive neuroscience (cognitive approach)

  • studies influence of brain structure (brain mapping), e.g Broca’s case study showed how damage to area in frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production, used brain scanning (fMRI & PET) to look at neurological basis
  • Tulving et al found different types of LTM located in opposing sides of prefrontal cortex (episodic & semantic) , working model‘s central executive thought to be in similar area
  • linked parahippocampal gyrus to OCD’s unpleasant emotions
• Cognitive approach A03

  (+) scientific and objective methods: lab studies have reliable & objective data, emergence of cognitive neuroscience enables biology and cognitive psychology to come together (credible scientific basis)

  (-) machine reductionism: ignores human emotions and motivation ( memory effected by anxiety in EWT)

  (-) artificial stimuli: scientific research on memory includes word lists, doesn’t represent everyday memory experience, lacks external validity
• Biological approach

  • biological structures (genes, nervous system, neurochemistry), brain structure & function can explain our thoughts and behaviour
  • genetic basis can determine behaviour characteristics (intelligence, personality, mental disorder) same as physical ones (height and eye colour)
  • twin studies: tested if certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rate (extent of shared characteristics, if identical (monozygotic) found to have higher rates (have 100% shared genes)
• biological approach continued

  • genotype: genetic make-up
  • phenotype: how genes are expressed via physical, behavioural and psychological factors, influenced by environmental factors (e.g exercise & hobbies), interaction of inherited factors (nature) and environment (nurture)
  • evolution: Darwin’s theory of natural selection- any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival will continue in future generations i.e naturally selected
• Biological approach A03

  (+) scientific methods: makes use of a range of precise & highly scientific methods (fMRI, EEG, family & twin studies, drug trials), accurate measure biological & neural processes in ways that are not open to bias, based on reliable data

  (+) real word application: development of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders like depression, makes able to manage condition rather than be hospitalised
• Psychodynamic approach

  • role of unconscious: Freud’s theory, biological drives & instincts that had influence on behaviour & personality
  • tripartite personality: ID - pleasure principle (to get what we want), from birth, selfish & demands gratification, EGO: reality principle, mediator of other parts of personality, manages via defence mechanisms, SUPEREGO: formed after phallic stage, internalised morality principle, punishes ego for wrongdoing (guilt)
  • defence mechanisms: REPRESSION - forcing out conscious, DENIAL - refuse to acknowledge, DISPLACEMENT: substitutes target to transfer feelings
• Freud’s psychosexual stages

  • Phallic stage: OEDIPUS COMPLEX - rivals father for mother’s love, fears father will castrate them so represses feelings and identifies with father (takes on gender role & moral values), ELECTRA COMPLEX - penis envy, desires father therefore hates mother, eventually gives up and replaces with desire for baby (identifies with mother)
  • Little Hans: phobia of horses, after seeing one collapse, says was a displacement of fear of father (castration) due to similar features

  
• psychodynamic approach A03

  (+) explanatory power: draws attention to connections to childhood, such as parents & later development (used to explain personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender)

  (-) case study use: cant be universally applied, as too specific and unique, lacks scientific rigour

  (-) untestable concepts: can’t be falsified, not open to empirical testing (and possibility of being disproved), based on unconscious
• Humanistic approach

  • free will: self-determining (active agents), make own choices, not determined by biological or external forces
  • self-actualisation: desire to grow psychologically & fulfil one’s full potential (becoming what you’re capable of), Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (physiological needs, safety & security, love & belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualisation)
  • Rogers: the self (way they see themself) & ideal self (the person they want to be) if aligned is congruence, lack means cant self-actualise
• Humanistic approach: Rogers’ client-centred therapy

  • help coping with low self-esteem & worthlessness, can be due to lack of unconditional positive regard or unconditional love (limits to love- conditions of worth), these things cause psychological issues so Rogers provides his clients with unconditional positive regard as of lack in childhood
• Humanistic approach A03


  (+) not reductionist: holistic, considers person as a whole, more validity as it considers meaningful human behaviour within its real life context rather than try to break it up - machine

  (-) limited application: explains motivation (Maslow) and applied to counselling (Rogers), not evidence-base research so limited impact on psychology

  (-) positive approach: brings life back to psychology, prompts positive image, Freud saw humans as slaves to their pasts, humanists see people as free and in control
• Comparisons - scientific methods

  • Behaviourists: highly scientific, focuses on observable stimuli & responses (Pavlov & Skinner), replicable
  • SLT: uses to investigate concepts like modelling, various learning and mediational processes, but cant be directly observed only inferred - reduces credibility
  • cognitive: can’t directly observe, only infer, not considered fully scientific
  • biological: use of brain-imaging tech, DNA sequences, blood tests, large scale place-controlled drug tests, objective measurement so highly scientific
• comparisons: scientific methodology

  • psychodynamics: Freud based theories on case studies, clients used introspection to report internal state so potential bias in researcher’s interpretation, concept like superego in tripartite personality isn’t operationally defined so cannot be scientifically studied
  • humanistic: rejects scientific method completely, says behaviour cant be reduced to simple variables, also rejects cause-and-effect, lacks empirical evidence
• comparisons: determinism 


  Behaviourist: hard environmental determinists, no free will, hard determinist

  SLT: environmental determinists, Bandura argued for reciprocal determinism (behaviour is caused by environment, but environment determined by behaviour - hard work on a test results in A grades and praising teachers, i.e praising environment)

  Cognitive: soft determinism, argues causal factors (experience), however argues internal mental processes can be determined by conscious effort (free will)

  biological: biological determinism, hard, innate/nature cause (hormones, brain, genes)
• Comparisons: determinism


  Psychodynamics: psychic determinism, unconscious thoughts, drives and repressed memories determine conscious behaviour, influences throughout life

  humanisitic: argues free will, soft, own decisions, no determinism
• Comparisons: nature vs nurture

  • Behaviourist: argues environmental factors most important influence (nurtute) but some aspects of nature (UCR is an innate reflex action)
  • SLT: nurture- social experiences, such as observing models and vicarious reinforcement
  • cognitive: argues both, internal mental processes run on physical & biological hardware of brain (nature), but schemas are learned (nurture)
  • biological: hereditary influence (nature), e.g DNA is inherited, innate characteristics
• comparisons: nature vs nurture

  • psychodynamics: both psychosexual stages are a biological process but shapes personality though experience of stages
  • humanists: holistic, both, wider explanations, believes nature and nurture interact as a whole so aren’t as separate as they’re considered
• Comparisons: psychological treatments 


  Behaviourists: used to treat phobias (flooding and systematic desensitisation), counter conditioning, replaces fear association with calm

  SLT: modelling alters maladaptive behaviour, encourages appropriate behaviour

  cognitive: CBT to challenge irrational thoughts by dispute and changes negative schemas

  biological: brain surgery, drug therapy, SSRIs fix serotonin levels

  psychodynamic: psychotherapy, introspect past experience to see if unconsciously effecting current behaviour/relationships

  humanistic: client-centred therapy, growth via U.C.R