Politics Democracy & Participation

• Evidence of High turnout

  • UK GE – 2019: 67%
  • UK GE – 1979: 76%
  • 2016 EU ref – 72% (7.6% voting increase)
  • 2014 Scottish indep. Ref – 84.6%
• Evidence of Low turnout

  • UK GE - 2001: 59%
  • 2011 AV Ref - 42%
  • Turnout now typically 60-65%, but pre 1990s was above 75%, has been declining since WW2
  • UK GE – 2019 18-24 yr olds, only 47% voted, lowest of any group
  • London mayoral election – 2021: 42% 2024: 40.5%
  • 2% of electorate are political party members
  • Local mayoral elections - 2024: 30% 2021: 35%
  • Local election turnout 2021 - 35%
• Direct democracy


  The public makes public policy, no distinction between government and governed
• Direct democracy

  • 2016 Brexit Ref, 72% turnout higher than gen election, est cost of £ 150 mill
  • Recall of MPs act used 6 times, most recent success in 2023 in Wellingborough with 13% constituents signing
• Representative democracy

  Indirect, public do not exercise power themselves, select who rule on behalf
• Types of representative democracy

  • Trustee (Berkean) representation
  • Delegate theory of representation
  • Party/Mandate representation
• UK is considered 17th democratic state globally
• Changes to voting system have been rejected, 2011 ref against Alternative Vote & Replacement of Supplementary vote in mayoral + PCC elections since 2023 with FPTP
• Rise of 'Bregret' since 57% voters believe decision to leave was wrong
• Evidence of limited trust

  • 2022 - 76% of the public in England don't trust MPs to take decisions that will improve their lives
  • 2016 – Only 21% of the population believed politicians could be relied on to tell the truth
  • Third (34%) of Britons feel they have absolutely no say when it comes to how things are run, and that UK has become less democratic over time
• Petitions that had an impact

  • 2007 – Against a plan to introduce charges for using roads. Got 1.8 mil signatures, the govt dropped the plan.
  • 2011 – 38 degrees petition Save Our Forest signed by 600k, led to Camerons govt reversing plan to sell natural forest
  • 2020 FareShare 1.1mil signed e-petition for FSM in summer
  • 2023- To hold a referendum on removing the London Assembly and London Mayor – response to ULEZ expanding; 70k singed; govt rejected and responded with a commitment to metro mayors
• Petitions that had no impact

  • 2016 - Should there be a second EU referendum? Got 3.8mil signatures, a parliamentary debate was held but no 2nd referendum allowed (Bregret - 6.4mil signed e-petition to revoke Brexit)
  • HS2 - Multiple HS2 public + council petitions, all closed, construction only stopped bc cost
• Outsider pressure groups


  • Votes at 16, lowered voting age to 16 for Scottish election (2015) & Welsh assembly elections (2019)
• Insider pressure groups


  • ASH, concentrates on lobbying, sponsors research, placed new taxes and health warnings on tobacco products, helped ban smoking in public places, support Sunaks 2024 smoking ban bills
  • BMA successfully campaigned for 2% rise of doctor wage post-pandemic
• Outsider promotional (causal) pressure groups

  • Intensive campaigning by pressure groups (inc Charter 88) to incorporate the EU convention of Human rights into UK law led to commitment in 1997 labour manifesto
  • 2021 Marcus Rashford worked with 'Fare Share' on #MakeTheUTurn and convinced govt to provide families with vouchers for FSM during summer
  • 2023 Just Stop Oil disruptive protests + Insulate Britain often break law in direct action, civil disobedience
  • 2024 Freedom from Torture made Westminster parl a 'crime-scene' after passing of Rwanda plan
• Insider promotional (causal) pressure groups

  • Howard League for penal reform, work with police & penal reforms for safer communities, passed act for books for prisoners
  • The Commission for Equality and human rights, works with govt to protect rights in UK
• 'Serpents that strangle efficient government' – Tory MP Douglas Hurd
• Hyperpluralism - Undemocratic influnce + Lobbying scandals ext
• Little impact on rights protection with current govt

  • Unable to prevent Rwanda plan, which is incompatible with international human rights conventions
  • Amensty, Liberty and Freedom from torture branded Parliament a 'crime-scene' after bill was passed
• Limited impact in strikes

  • British Medical Association (BMA) – strike action 2023
  • Ongoing rail strikes
• Liberty


  • Brings legal challenges against rights abuse, 2020 used HRA to bring case against BCP council, successfully remove a public space protection order that criminalised rough sleepers and beggars
  • Recent cases against public face-recognition cameras
• Positives of Lobbyists

  • £2 billion spent on Lobbyists each year by corporations
  • 52 former ministers work for lobbyists firms
  • UK lobbying industry in 3rd largest in the world
  • Transparency in Lobbying, non-party campaigning and trade union admin act 2014 enhanced transparency around lobbying
• 2024 lobbying scandal, MP Burnell suspended from parl for offering to lobby ministers on behalf of gambling industry + leaking confidential documents
• Think Tank Examples


  • Legatum Institute - think tank close to Boris Johnson, responsible in helping Johnson + Gove write a letter influencing Brexit policy to Theresa May in 2017 - insider influence/elitism
  • Adam Smith Institute - Sig in Truss administration, her political secretary, Sophie Jarvis was the head of government affairs at the Adam Smith Institute
• Votes for 16 (For)


  • Recent 'single-issues' with govt impact them, Sunaks school phone ban + smoking ban, should have a say
  • 75% turnout in 16-17 in Scottish independence referendum, only 54% 18-24
• Votes for 16 (Against)

  • Youngest are least politically active anyways
  • 2019 18-24 yr olds only 47% voted, lowest of any group
• Rights Protection Legislation

  • Magna Carter 1215 - Oldest statement of UK rights, limiting royal power
  • Human Rights Act 1998 - Established protective positive rights, replaced hard-to-enforce negative rights
  • 2010 Equality Act - Prevented any discrimination of certain groups, legislating absolute equality (bipartisan effort)
  • 2013 Marriage Act - Effect of pressure groups such as The equality network campaigning since 2008, led to political parties announcing support for equal marriage in 2010 campaign
• Rights Protection Undermined

  • Police, Crime and Sentencing Act 2022 - Strengthens police power to tackle disruptive protests, criminalises 'lock-ons' which had previously caused mass civil disruption when used by Insulate Britain, Protestors face up to 10 years in prison, Prioritises collective rights
  • Public Order Act 2023 - 52 arrests on day of Kings coronation, 32 under this Act, 6 protesters arrested 'on suspicion' of locking-on, released next day with no charge, Rushed through parliament
  • Rwanda Legislation 2024 - 2022 High Court ruled plan was lawful, Incompatible with international human rights conventions, Belfast High court ruled parts incompatible with Windsor framework, HofL forced to accept commons rejection
  • Sunaks support of British bill of rights - Would remove collective rights of trans people
  • 2019 Shamima Began - 2024 Court of appeal upheld decision to deny entry
• Voter ID issues

  2% of people have no form of ID

  2023 elections 4% didn’t vote bc of lack of id