approaches

• origins of psychology - wundt


  • first ever psychological research lab - beginning of psychology as a science
  • aim to analyse nature of human consciousness
  • introspection - first systematic analysis in studying mind by brekaing it up into basic structures of thought, images and sensations - structuralism
  • used standardised procedures, various stimuli - objects and sounds to observe thoughts images and sesations e.g ticking metronome
• emergence of psychology as a science

  • introspection questioned, Watson - emphasised objectivity and scientific analysis of observable and measurable bvrs - lead to behavourist approach categorised by using carefully controlled experiments
  • digital revolution - cognitive approach, highly scientific use of computer models
  • advances in tech to include brain scanning - biological approach
• assumptions of the behaviourist approach

  • studying observable behaviour that can be measured
  • maintains control and objectivity relying heavily on lab experiments
  • born as 'tabula rasa' learn bvr through classical and operant conditioning
  • learning processes same for all species
• classical conditioning - pavlov


  • learning through association
  • Pavlov - dogs conditioned to salivate to sound of bell
  • bell presented at same time given food - associate sound of bell with food giving salivatory response
  • before conditioning - bell NS, food UCS, salivation UCR
  • after conditioning - bell CS to give CR salivation
• operant conditioning - skinner

  • learning through consequences
  • skinners box - rat given food everytime lever pulled - bvr performed more - positive reinforcement
  • pressing lever leads avoids electric shock - negative reinforcement
  • positive reinforcement - reward when bvr peformed increasing bvr
  • negative reinforcement - avoids unpleasant stimulus - avoidance bvr increases
  • punishment - unpleasant consequence of bvr
• behavourist approach AO3 - well controlled research

  • measurement of observable bvr within highly controlled lab settings
  • establishes cause and effect relationship
  • scientific credibility
  • h/ reductionist - reducing bvr into simple components - oversimplification
• behavourist approach AO3 - real world application

  • principles of conditioning applied to real world
  • e.g token economies Sz in psychiatric wards, classical conditioning in treatment of phobias
• behavourist approach AO3 - environmental determinism

  • all behaviour determined by past experiences
  • ignores the possible influence of free will and conscious descision making processes
• social learning theory assumptions

  • agree with behaviorists that bvr learnt through experiences h/ learn through observation and imitation of others
  • learning can occur indirectly - vicarious reinforcement
• vicarious reinforcement and mediational processes (SLT)

  • bvr result of identification with role model - model bvr and imitate, vicarious reinforcement takes place when role model is rewarded for bvr
  • mediational process needed - attention to notice bvr, retention to remember bvr, reproduction - ability of observer to perform bvr and motivation - the will to perform bvr is determined by whether rewarded or punished (ARRM)
  • person becomes role model is seen to share similar characteristics to observer
• SLT - Bandura's research

  • RM shown hitting bobo doll (control non agg RM)
  • children later observed playing with toys including bobo doll, group seen agg RM also aggressive
  • eval - lab ex, highly controlled h/ demand characteristics- Bobo doll designed to be hit
• SLT AO3 - cognitive factors

  • strength - recognises importance of cognitive factors in learning
  • mediational processes provide more comprehensive explanation
  • h/ ignores biological factors
• SLT AO3 - real world application

  SLT can explain cultural differences in bvr, processes such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from others

  • useful in understanding range of bvrs and gender roles, used in media - reducing agg, ads without stereotyped gender roles
• SLT AO3 - reciprical determinism

  • not merely influenced by environment but also exert influence upon it - suggests some level of free will
• cognitive approach assumptions

  • internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
  • study such processes indirectly by making inferences
• cognitive approach - role of schema

  • mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing - developed as a result of past experiences
  • enable cognitive processing of new information based on past schema to respond appropriately
  • h/ schemas may distort interpretations of sensory information - leading to perpetual errors
• cognitive approach - theoretical and computer models

  • theoretical - abstract, computer - concrete
  • theoretical - information processing approach - info flows through cognitive system in a sequence of stages including input, storage and retrieval - MSM
  • computer model - programming computer to see if instructions produce similar output to humans - AI
• cognitive approach - the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

  • the scientific study of the influence of brain structures and biological processes that underpin mental processes
  • through brain imaging - early mapping involves the discovery of Brocas and Wernickes area
  • last 25 years - fMRI and PET scans allow scientists to observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes e.g Tulving semantic and episodic memory in opposite sides of prefrontal cortex
  • useful in establishing the neurological basis of mental disorders e.g OCD
• cognitive approach AO3 - scientific methods

  • strengths - uses objective scientific methods
  • highly controlled methods to make inferences - lab ex
  • emergence of cognitive neuroscience allowed fields of biology and cognitive psychology to meet and enhance scientific basis of study
  • scientific credibility
  • H/ relies on inference of internal processes may be too abstract and use of artificial stimuli- low external validity
• cognitive approach AO3 - real world application

  • dominant approach in psychology today
  • artificial intelligence
  • CBT - treatments for depression etc
  • CI - reliability of EWT
• cognitive approach AO3 - machine reductionism

  • although similarities between mind and computers - computer analogy criticized due to ignoring the influence of human emotion and motivation and how may affect processing ability
  • for example human memory altered by anxiety - EWT
  • may weaken the validity of cognitive approach
• cognitive approach AO3 - soft determinism


  • human bvr determined by internal and external factors but we can also exert free will at times
  • recognises system can only work in limits of known h/ free to think before responding to stimuli
  • more reasonable that hard determinism
• biological approach assumptions

  • everything psychological is first biological
  • must study biological structures and processes within body - physical processes importance emphasised
• biological approach basis of behaviour

  • neurochemical basis - the action of chemicals. much of thought and bvr relies on neurotransmitters e.g low serotonin in OCD
  • genetic basis - investigated by twin studies to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates - envt. assumed to be constant
• biological approach - genotype and phenotype

  • genotype - set of genes individual possesses
  • phenotype - characteristics of individual determined by both genes and environment
• biological approach - evolution and behaviour

  • natural selection - genetically determined behaviour that enhances individuals survival and reproduction continues to future generations
  • results in the genetic inheritance of preferred genes - transmission of traits from parents to offspring
• biological approach AO3 - real world application

  • increasing understanding of neurochemical processes associated with treatments such as antidepressants and SSRIs for depression and OCD
  • H/ not suitable for everyone Cipriani - compared 21 antidepressants with placebo, found although more effective than placebo, mainly modest effects - challenges value of biological approach as brain chemistry may not alone account for all cases for example of depression
• biological approach AO3 - scientific methods

  • objective methods such as brain scan techniques
  • objective and reliable data
  • high scientific credibility
• Biological approach AO3 - biological determinism

  • human bvr governed by internal genetic causes
  • MZ twins concordance rate not 100% - suggests envt factors
  • problematic for the criminal justice system
  • too simplistic and ignores mediating effects of environment and free will
• psychodynamic approach - assumptions

  • bvr as a result of unconscious motives - mental disorders caused by unresolved childhood conflicts
• psychodynamic approach - the structure of personality

  • Id - pleasure principle, primitive nature of personality present since birth - selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs
  • Ego - reality principle, mediator if Id and Superego, develops around the age of 2 - reduces conflicts between demands by employing defense mechanisms
  • Superego - morality principle. develops at end of phallic stage around 5 - internalised sense of right and wrong
• psychodynamic approach - Little Hans case study

  • phobia of horses caused by displaced fear of father
  • lead to the discovery of psychosexual stages by dream analysis and interviews with father
• Psychodynamic approach - psychosexual stages

  • Oral - 0-1 years, focus of pleasure mouth, fixation leads to smoking, nailbiting, sarcastic
  • Anal - 1-3 years, focus of pleasure anus, withholding and expelling feaces - fixation, anal retentive are perfectionists and obsessive whilst anal expulsive are thoughtless and messy
  • Phallic - 3-6 years, focus of pleasure genital area, fixation results in narcissism and recklessness
  • Latency - earlier conflicts repressed
  • Genital - sexual desires with onset of puberty, fixation results in difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
• Psychodynamic approach - defense mechanisms

  • repression, denial and displacement
  • don't offer permanent solutions
• Psychodynamic approach AO3

  • real world application - psychotherapy, psychoanalysis - forerunner for counselling
  • evidence base - case study, androcentric lacks temporal validity - not generalisable
  • does not consider family diversity - Green - gay/ trans families children developed stable gender identity
  • unstable concepts such as oedipus complex - not falsifiable as not open to empirical testing - pseudoscientific
  • psychic determinsm
• Humanistic approach assumptions

  • humans have free will
  • reject scientific models - believe all unique
  • emphasises the importance of subjective experience and human motives behind behaviour - holistic viewpoint
  • belief in self-actualisation being the desire to reach ones full potential, personal growth regarded as essential to being human
• humanistic approach - Maslow's hierarchy of needs

  hierarchy of needs motivates behaviour - to reach self-actualisation other needs must be met first

  top to bottom:

  • self-actualisation, self-esteem, love and belonging, safety, physiological needs
• humanistic approach - Rogers theory

  • for personal growth to be achieved self-concept and ideal self must have congruence, when incongruence self-actualisation is not possible
  • to reduce gap, client-centered therapy, where therapist acts as a guide and gives the patient unconditional positive regard to increase congruence
  • finds incongruence can be explained due to conditions of worth in childhood when love and belonging are only displayed in certain circumstances
• humanistic approach AO3 - holistic view

  • not reductionist, rejects attempts to break down bvr instead takes positive holistic viewpoint
  • h/ therefore not scientific as no way of establishing cause and effect - short on empirical evidence
• humanistic approach AO3 - cultural bias

  • idea of self-actualisation more readily associated with individualist cultures rather than collectivist
  • Nevis 1983 - self-actualisation in a collectivist culture is defined as contributing to society and social relationships rather than personal identity defining self concept
  • reduces applicability of approach outside individualist culture - ethnocentric