Education

• purposes of education


  -develops routines

  -develops independence

  -helps build connections

  -allows for better job opportunities

  -teaches norms and values

  -development of social skills

  -soft skills
• functionalist views of education

  -organic analogy> society has interdependent parts

  -there are shared cultures and norms

  -Emile Durkheim (macro-sociologist) > "society is made up of large systems"
• what do functionalists say are the 3 main purposes of education


  1) education teaches the skills needed for work and also by the economy

  2) the allocation function

  3) secondary socialisation> passing on core values
• Emile Durkheim: education


  -education transmits society's norms and values

  -history teaching creates a link between the individual and society which leads to SOCIAL SOLIDARITY- individual members must feel like they're part of a single body or community

  -talks about school providing a bridge between particularistic and universalistic values

  -compared school to a miniature society > people accept social rules > value consensus
• what are particularistic and universalistic values

  p: particular/specific to each family

  u: universal, applies to everyone
• crtiticisms of Durkheim


  -not everyone shares the same norms and values

  -education isn't always successful in teaching the norms and values of society > the education system can be biassed or discriminatory
• Parsons: education


  -education acts as a bridge between the family and adult roles

  -it passes on universal value of achievement socialising the young in the norms and values of society

  -it allocates appropriate roles of children as education is meritocratic (the most talented people reach the top)

  "education acts as a bridge between home and work"
• Davis and Moore: education

  -say the key function of education is role allocation

  -education system sifts and sorts individuals according to their ability > meritocratic

  -their perspective is very similar to Parson's
• Parson's says that schools teach GAIL which we need in order for society to survive. what does this stand for


  G:oal attainment> use resources to achieve goals

  A:daptation> adapt to work environment

  I:ntegration> encourage people to work together

  L:atent pattern maintenance> keep improving and changing
• what do functionalists say education is ESSENTIAL to avoid


  -crime rates rising > egoism (people pursue own goals)

  -suicide rate rising > anomie (confusion/lack of shared values)

  need to avoid these in order to achieve social solidarity

  (statistics tell us that if people feel part of something, these things are less likely to happen)
• what does school diversity refer to

  a varied range of schools types within the education system including faith schools, academies, private schools, state schools, boarding schools etc.

  > the govnt. might see benefits in school diversity as they don't have to fund all the different types of schools directly

  > also individuals may suit specific school types that are specific to their needs e.g. some may need extra support
• free schools - what they are + advantages

  - funded by the govt but aren't run by the local authority. they have more control over how they do things. they're "all ability" schools, set their own pay + conditions for staff and can change the length of school terms and the school day

  - advantages: > all ability

  > working in realistic situations through teaching of mainstream qualifications too

  > students are given a personal coach
• academies - what they are + advantages


  - funded by govt and run by an academy trust. inspected by ofsted and can set their own times

  - advantages: > don't charge fees

  > don't have to follow national curriculum

  > some are supported by sponsors
• faith schools - what they are + advantages

  - have to follow national curriculum, but can choose what they teach in RE. they have different admissions criteria

  - advantages: > can choose what they want to teach in RE
• criticisms of functionalist views on education

  - don't consider that there may not be a single set of values to be transmitted

  - if society does transmit values, it could be the values of the bourgeoisie or the elite

  - assumes education is meritocratic, although evidence can show this may not be the case > who you know is more important than what you know in some societies, therefore the meritocratic function doesn't work
• neoliberalism


  an economic belief that has had major influence on educational policy

  > argues that the state should not provide services such as education, health and welfare

  > based on the idea that the state must not dictate to individuals how to dispose of their own property and shouldn't try to regulate a free-market economy

  > governments should privatise state-run businesses and deregulate markets

  
  

  - the new right incorporates these ideas as they believe that the state cannot meet people's needs and that people are best left to meet their own needs through the free market (they're in favour of marketisation in education)
• chubb and moe (new right)


  - argue that state run education in the US has failed because:

  > it hasn't created equal opportunity and has failed the needs of disadvantaged groups

  > inefficient > fails to produce pupils with the skills needed by the economy

  > private schools deliver higher quality education because they are answerable to paying consumers - the parents

  - they call for the introduction of a market system in state education that would put control in the hands of consumers > allows consumers to shape schools to meet their own needs and would improve quality and efficiency
• what does ISA and RSA stand for and who is the key marxist that proposes them

  ideological state apparatus > a system in which the ideology is transmitted

  repressive state apparatus

  
  

  - althusser
• marxists views of education

  - education is part of the ISA - the rule of the bourgeoisie is maintained by controlling people's ideas, values and beliefs (also done through media and religion)

  - it promotes ruling class values, (not common values as functionalists say)

  - it justifies and reproduces class inequality

  - RSA > maintains the rule of the bourgeoisie by force or the threat of it > includes the police, courts and army. when necessary they use physical coersion to repress the W/C

  - says education contains a hidden curriculum which promotes ruling class values and attitudes > ensures W/C accept their own failure whereas in reality it is the capitalist education system which causes them to fail
• Bowles and Gintis: Correspondence Theory claims that...

  - education reflects the needs of capitalism by giving pupils the appropriate skills and attitudes to make them "good" and obedient workers

  - there is a direct correspondence between school and work e.g. teachers are the "bosses" who control learning and pupils are the "workers" who have no control over their learning

  - students are rewarded with success for their conformity not their intellectual ability > students who conform tend to do better than those who challenge the system
• criticisms on both functionalist and marixst views of education

  paul willis (a neo-marxist) says both theories are deterministic and they ignore the ability of many pupils to resist the education system
• strengths and weaknesses of marxist views

  strengths:

  - recognises that not everyone has equal circumstances

  - recognises that who you know is more important than what you know

  - looks at how education serves the needs of particular groups (ruling class)

  - shows how pupils accept the hierarchy of society and explains how it comes to be accepted

  weaknesses:

  - assumes people are passive victims

  - exaggerates how much w/c students are socialised into obedience. willis showed how students actually resist authority

  - most people are aware of the inequality in education and don't think that this inequality is legitamate
• Bernstein (1975)


  restricted code- "short, grammatically simple, unfinished sentences" > context bound > meanings tend to be particularistic > typically used by W/C which reduces the chances of these pupils acquiring some of the skills demanded by the educational system

  
  

  elaborated code- "longer, grammatically more complex sentences > context free > meanings tend to be universalistic > gives these pupils an advantage at school because it is the code used by teachers, textbooks etc.
• hubbs-tait et al (2002)


  cultural deprivation: language

  > the way in which parents communicate with their children affects their cognitive and intellectual development and their ability to benefit from the process of schooling
• douglas (1964)


  cultural deprivation: the parents education

  > W/C parents place less importance on education. as a result, they're less ambitious for their children and give them less encouragement to try hard and do well in school

  > supported by Feinstein (2003) > a parent's own education is an important factor affecting children's achievement.> educated parents are more likely to be aware of how best to help their children in their education e.g. reading with them, help with hl etc.
• sugarman (1970) - functionalist

  - says w/c subculture has key values which acts as barriers to educational success

  1) fatalism: belief in fate "what will be will be" and there is nothing you can do to change it M/C emphasise meritocracy

  2) collectivism: value the group rather than the individual whereas M/C assume that individuals should not be held back by group loyalties

  3) immediate gratification: seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices

  4) present time orientation: seeing the here and now, rather than looking into the future
• how might these external factors affect educational achievement for the different social classes?

  1) w/c students may not attempt to improve academically due to the mistaken belief that their grades were "meant to be" and they can't change it.

  2) w/c students may not value individual competition as they value more being part of a group and care what others think about them "working too hard". may lead to less educational success as they don't maximise their ability to achieve higher than others> value symbolic capital over educational capital

  3) w/c may leave education early in order to earn money quicker as they seek pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards e.g. a degree in the future. whereas m/c carry out delayed gratification

  4) w/c see the present as more important than the future so waste precious time that would end up being beneficial if used correctly
• compensatory education


  refers to extra educational help for those coming from disadvantaged groups to help them overcome the inequalities they face in the education system and wider society. e.g. pupil premium, covid catch up funding, Aim Higher. > tried to make up/compensate for cultural deprivation
• criticisms for cultural explanations

  - overlook practical difficulties faced by WC parents > longer hours, less flexibility and choice in hours, more shift work, less time off with pay, less educated > the material constraints of their jobs is the reason why they have less contribution to their child's school, not because they don't care

  - overestimate a WC parent's confidence > often lack confidence and assertiveness that MC parents have which may prevent WC people from turning parental interest into practical support

  - bernstein's work is oversimplistic > there is a wide difference between higher and lower sections of MC, and the same with WC > cannot generalise the assumption that all MC speak elaborated or all WC speak restricted > there's likely to be diversity in the ways in which language is used in the family, regardless of class

  - ignore the role played by the schools themselves > inbuilt advantage towards the MC e.g. school trips, playing instruments > MC pupils may perform better because they are more in tune with their teachers and thus receive more praise > teacher labelling can occur which leads to SFP's where students will undertake the behaviours and attitudes that are expected of them
• evans (2007)


  carried out observations and interviews on a WC council estate in london and found that most WC parents do place a high value in education and did encourage their children to work hard and do well
• Sure Start Children's Centres

  - a govnt initiative aimed to tackle poverty and social exclusion "giving children the best possible start in life" through improvement of childcare, early education, health and family support with parental employment

  - parents were taught to: > increase positive child behaviour through praise and incentives

  > improve parent-child interactions: relationship building

  > set clear expectations: limit setting and non-aversive management strategies for non-compliance

  > apply consistent gentle consequences for problem behaviour
• different factors of material deprivation influencing educational success

  - substandard housing > overcrowding = less room for educational activities like HL > sleep may be disturbed from sharing beds/rooms/from noise pollution. families living in temporary accommodation may have to move frequently > with poor housing comes more risk of accidents, ill health and psychological distress

  - diet and health > howard (2001) found that people from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals > weakens immune system > more absences

  - the cost of state education > transport, uniforms, books, stationery, computers, sports, music > heavy burden on poorer families > children may have to wear hand-me-downs + cheaper more unfashionable equipment > risk being stigmatized/bullied

  > flaherty found 20% of children entitled to FSM don't take them out of fear of stigmatization and "not fitting in"

  - WC students are more debt-averse and see it as a negative > avoid going to uni (5x less likely) > can't afford travel, accom, fees etc.
• pierre bordieu (1984) - marxist


  - saw the education system as an agent of social control for the benefit of capitalism

  - argues that each social class possesses its own framework or set of ideas which he calls a habitus - this then influences their cultural tastes and choices

  - suggests that cultural and material capital are not factors that contribute separately to educational achievement, but are interrelated

  - capital explains why MC pupils are likely to be more successful
• the 3 different types of capital that bordieu emphasises the links between are...

  - economic > refers to wealth

  - educational > refers to qualifications a pupil gains (wealth of qualifications)

  - cultural > refers to the possession of cultural characteristics (e.g. elaborated code) which allows pupils to gain more of the other types of capital
• Habitus definition


  learned, taken-for-granted ways of thinking, acting and being shared by a particular social class or group. includes preference for particular lifestyles and consumption patterns, and beliefs about what is realistic for members of that group to aim for
• why does bordieu see MC culture as a type of capital that gives an advantage to those who possess it (like wealth)

  - through their socialisation, MC children acquire the ability to grasp and express abstract ideas. they are more likely to develop intellectual interests and an understanding of what the education system requires for success > gives MC an advantage in school, where such abilities and interests are highly valued + rewarded with qualifications > education system is not neutral, but favours and transmits the dominant MC culture

  - MC parents can convert their economic capital into educational capital by sending their children to private schools and paying for extra tuition
• why does bordieu see WC culture as disadvantageous in school


  WC children find that school devalues their culture as "rough" and inferior. their lack of cultural capital leads to exam failure. many also "get the message" that education is not meant for them and respond by truanting, leaving early or just not trying
• criticisms of bordieu


  - although successful pupils with greater cultural capital were more likely to be MC, Alice Sullivan (2001) found that cultural capital only accounted for part of the class difference in achievement. Where pupils of different classes had the same level of cultural capital, MC pupils still did better.

  > sullivan concludes that the greater resources and aspirations of MC families explain the remainder of the class gap in achievement
• Rutler


  - teachers are the biggest influence on educational achievement

  > what teachers do influences the students through labelling, helping and making students believe they are capable of achieving well through sufficient encouragement
• Rist- labelling in primary schools


  - those the teacher decided were fast learners whom she labelled "tigers", tended to be MC and of a neat/clean appearance. she seated these at the table nearest to her and showed them the greatest encouragement

  - the 2 other groups whom she labelled the "cardinals" and the "clowns" were seated further away. these groups were more likely to be WC. they were given lower level books to read and fewer chances to show their abilities e.g. they had to read in a group instead of individually