Week 4: fortifications and castles

• Communal fortifications


  Refuge-sites, not permanently inhabited, used for times in danger
• Communal fortifications


  • Circular fortresses in Zeeland province, Netherlands, classified as Early State Fortifications
  • Unterregenbach
• Early State Fortifications


  Garrisoned fortresses, Carolingian border fortresses near Saxon border, often combined with palace, church, and proto-urban settlement, nuclei for urban development, started as fortresses in 8th/9th century
• Early State Fortifications


  • Circular fortresses on Flemish and Dutch coast, e.g. Oost-Souburg, used to fight off the Vikings and protect estuaries
  • Burhs in England, built by King Alfred the Great in 880 against the Vikings
  • Danish fortresses of 10th century, all constructed in 980s, only used for 10 to 15 years, built by Viking king Harald Bluetooth
• Early State Fortifications


  • Function = system of regional defence, early warning system, storage of supply, power expression, control of landscape, mobilise manpower and resources
• Early State Fortifications


  • Trelleborg and Aggersborg, similar interior to Roman castella
• Linear fortifications


  Rare in Middle Ages
• Linear fortifications


  • Danevirke, linear earthwork at Danish-German border, dated 700 and used until 13th century, latest use during WW2
  • Offa's dyke, linear earthwork by King Offa of Mercia, dated 8th century, protection against Welsh
• Interior organisation of circular fortresses

  Varies per fortress, possibly built by central authorities
• In written sources 891: castella recens facta, against viking attacks, but date and function could vary, no evidence for a garrison
• Circular fortresses


  • Zutphen, Deventer, Tiel, Huneschans, Duno, all late 9th/early 10th century and situated inland
• Later history of Early State Fortifications

  Some developed into towns, quite a few Flemish-Dutch fortresses, almost no Danish fortresses
• "Slavic" circular fortresses


  • Groß Raden, slavonic fortress built in 9th century and deserted in 10th, proto-urban defences
• Roman walls


  Often neglected 4th to 9th century, restored against Viking attacks, often in France and Rhineland, new defences of stone/brick or earth and wood
• Communal defences


  • Defended monasteries, e.g. Seirkieran (Ireland), Clonmacnoise
• Private fortifications/castles


  Developed due to power vacuum after decline in Carolingian empire, resulted in rise of aristocracy
• Phases of private fortifications/castles

  1. Higher aristocracy

  2. Lesser lords

  3. Consolidation after 1150
• Fragmentation of power


  After Louis the Pious dies 840, Treaty of Verdun 843
• Phase 1 (950 - 1050)


  Rise of feudalism, formation of dukedoms and counties, offices made hereditary by dukes and counts
• Phase 2 (1050 - 1200)


  Process repeated at local level: formation of local seignories, professional cavalry gave rise to knights, violence authorised by church, chivalry developed from 12th century
• Oldest types of castles

  Earthworks, ringwork castle, motte-and-bailey castle
• Masonry castle


  Keep => tower, curtain walls/innerward with curtains walls, later castles (13th century) had outer ward, higher curtain walls, arrow loops, projecting towers
• Early towers and their development

  • Hoverberg (DE), wooden keep converted to a motte in early 12th century
• Seigneury


  Lord/knight exploited surroundings, appropriation of bannum, use of this power in an area, grip of rulers on population, owned the land and people living on it, had ban (general authority to order and punish), levying of taxes + mandatory use of facilities (mill and brewery), military power, juridical power
• Palaces and Carolingian villas

  • Aristocratic residence at Petegem, Belgium, 9th century, hall in north with floor heating + church and cemetery in south
• Defended farmsteads


  • Crannogs in Ireland and Scotland
• • 16th century: many castles converted into country houses
  • State took over administrative tasks
  • Less warfare
  • Introduction of canon made castles obsolete
• Canons introduced in 14th century, balls of stone, later iron, very imprecise + limited range (300-500m)
• Palace


  Derives from palatinum, Merovingian palaces not well known but Carolingian period was rapid growth
• Traveling king


  Emperor Charlemagne had no fixed residence, stayed in palatial, many new palatiae built by Carolingians
• Amenities of Carolingian palaces


  • Receptions and ceremonies (aula regia), church/chapel, residence of the king, living areas for staff, thesaurus, chancellery, library, storage facilities for food supply
• Carolingian palaces


  • Aachen palace had chapel, royal hall, atrium, covered gallery with gate, treasury, clerk's workplace, changing room, school
• Other European palaces


  • England: Westminster hall, Scandinavia: halls from iron age/viking age, Abbey of Saint John in Müstair, Switzerland: bishop palace
• Differences between palaces and castles


  Palace lacks defensive structures, large palace again at end of middle ages
• Elite activities


  • Hunting, feasting, hand-washing rituals, sports, games and tournaments, consumption of rare species of animals
• Elite activities


  • Hansa bowl (11th-13th century), used for handwashing
  • Chess from 11th/12th century, mill game
• Symbols of power


  Regalia: attributes of the king from 11th century, Bayeux tapestry showing Harold with regalia, Trojan horse, ivory hiking sticks, heraldry from 12th century, seals from 12th century