bio final

• Organization of life


  • Biosphere
  • Ecosystem
  • Community
  • Population
  • Organism
  • Organ
  • Tissue
  • Cell
  • Organelle
  • Molecule
• Properties of life


  • Order
  • Evolution
  • Response to environment
  • Regulation (Homeostasis)
  • Energy required
  • Growth and development
  • Reproduction
• Homeostasis


  Various mechanisms that act to prevent changes in the environment inside our bodies, in order to regulate internal environment must have receptor, control center
• Photosynthesis


  Process that converts light energy into chemical energy
• Cellular respiration


  Process that converts chemical energy into ATP
• Laws of thermodynamics


  • 1st law: energy can be transferred or transformed but neither created nor destroyed
  • 2nd law: every energy transfer increases disorder of universe
• Scientific Method


  1. Make a set of observations

  2. Specify the biological question

  3. Put the question in the form of a biological null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis with prediction

  4. Put the question in the form of a statistical null hypothesis with predictions

  5. Determine which variables are relevant to the question

  6. Determine what kind of variable each one is (quantitative/qualitative independent/dependant)

  7. Design an experiment that controls or randomizes the confounding variables

  8. Based on the # of variables, the kinds of variables, the hypothesis to be tested, choose the best statistical test to use

  9. Do the experiment

  10. Apply the statistical test you chose and interpret the results with regards to the hypothesis

  11. Communicate results effectively
• Variance


  Measures how far a set of numbers is spread out
• Small variance


  Indicates that the data are cluttered tightly around the average= little variability
• Large variance


  Indicates that the data are spread out = high variability
• Variance of the entire population

  σ2=Σ(xi – mean)2N
• Variance of a sample


  s2=Σ(xi – mean)2n-1
• Replication in Experiments


  • Variability in biological systems is why we perform experiments, a procedure in which an observation or measurement is repeated on multiple individuals, the conditions under which each observation is made should be identical, each individual observation is called a replicate, the more replicate, the more replicates you have the better and more powerful your conclusions will be
• Organization of Life into related groups

  • Bacteria-prokaryotes
  • Archaea- bacteria that live in extreme environments
  • Eukarya- 4 main kingdoms (protista, plantae, fungi, animalia)
• Natural selection


  Linked to genetic variation
• Sources of genetic variation

  • Mutations
  • Gene flow
  • Meiosis
• Chemistry of water


  1. forms the basic structure of biomolecules
  2. water-also involved in acid/base reactions
  3. water- breathing
  4. DNA-proteins
  5. phosphorus: cell membranes
  6. nerves and muscles
  7. amino acids
• Importance of water


  • 70% of planet, life developed in water, alot in our bodies
• Ionic bonds


  No sharing-electron is removed
• Covalent bonds


  Molecules share their electrons
• Non polar covalent bonds


  Two molecules of same element
• Polar covalent


  Electrons not shared evenly
• Hydrogen bonds


  Bonds between molecules, weak bonds making it fluid, bonds broken and remade all the time
• Water's cohesion


  • Many organisms depend on the cohesion, molecules stick together, bond broken and formed, surface tension
• Water moderates temperature


  • Amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of substance to change its temp. By 1 C, large bodies of water absorbs heat during day, gives off heat at night
• Evaporative cooling


  As water is heated its molecules gain energy, most excited ones at surface have absorbed the most energy into the air taking heat with them
• Ice is less dense than water


  • As water freeze all H bonds get completed making it less dense, making it float which insulates the water below
• pH


  Solution contains uniform mixture of solute and solvent, H changes pH so could make acid/base, aquatic communication and acid rains
• Organic chemistry


  All organic molecules contain C which form 4 covalent bonds and bonds by itself, built of smaller molecules, attached in different configurations, form determines function: length, double bond position, branching, presence of rings
• Organic functional groups


  • Hydroxyl:OH
  • Carbonyl:C=O
  • Carboxyl: COOH
  • Amino: NH2
  • Sulfhydryl: SH
  • Phosphate:OPO3
  • Methyl:CH3
• Biomolecules


  Made of different units, long strings of identical or similar molecules covalently bonded together, these macromolecules are called polymers, monomer is a unit
• Dehydration reaction


  Removes water molecule forming a new bond
• Hydrolysis


  Breaking, add water to break a bond
• Carbohydrates (sugars)


  Glycosidic linkages
• Monosaccharides


  • Glucose
  • Galactose
  • Fructose
• Disaccharides


  • Sucrose: glucose-fructose
  • Lactose: glucose-galactose
  • Maltose:glucose-glucose
• Examples of carbohydrates


  • Sugars
  • Glycogen
  • Starch
  • Cellulose
  • Chitin
• Glycogen


  Energy storage in animals by glycogen phosphorylase
• Starch


  Energy storage in plants: amylose-amylopectin by amylaze
• Cellulose


  Structural strength in plants due to beta glucose, it's hard