PE EDEXCEL

• The vertebral column is divided into five main sections and each contains a specific number of vertebrae.

  There are 33 vertebrae in total – the upper 24 vertebrae are articulating and separated from each other - there are seven cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae.

  The lower nine vertebrae are fused – the sacrum consists of five fused vertebrae and the coccyx is made up of four fused together.
• Main functions of the skeleton

  • Movement
  • Support and protection
  • Production of blood cells
  • Storage of minerals
  • Attachment of muscles
• Movement


  • The skeleton allows movement of the body as a whole and its individual parts
  • The bones act as levers and also form joints that allow muscles to pull on them and produce joint movements
• Support and protection


  • The bones of the skeleton provide support for the body
  • The bones protect the organs found within the body
  • The cranium protects the brain
  • The ribs offer protection to the heart and lungs
  • The vertebrae protect the spinal cord
  • The pelvis offers protection to the sensitive reproductive organs
• Production of blood cells

  • Certain bones in the skeleton contain red bone marrow
  • The bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
  • Examples of bones that contain marrow are the pelvis, sternum, vertebrae and clavicle
• Storage of minerals


  • The bones themselves are made of minerals and act as a mineral store for calcium and phosphorous
  • The minerals can be given up if the body requires them for other functions
• Attachment of muscles


  • The bones of the skeleton provide surfaces for the attachment of muscles
  • This is why bones are often irregular shapes and have bony points and grooves to provide attachment points
• Joint


  A place where two or more bones meet, also called an articulation
• Connective tissues


  • Consist of ligaments, cartilage and tendons
• Ligaments


  Give joints their stability by connecting bone to bone
• Cartilage


  Found at the ends of bones and where joints meet
• Tendons


  Attach muscles to the skeleton
• Synovial joints


  Freely movable joints that allow free movement to perform skills and techniques during physical activity
• Synovial joints


  • Have synovial fluid in the joint cavity that lubricates the joint
  • The ends of the bones are covered with cartilage (articular cartilage) which cushions the joint and prevents friction and wear and tear
  • The articular capsule prevents wear and tear on the bones
• Ligaments in synovial joints


  • Are a type of connective tissue and are tough, fibrous and slightly elastic
  • Connect bone to bone and help keep the joint together
  • Stabilise the joints during movement and prevent dislocation by restricting actions outside the normal joint range
  • Can absorb shock because of their elasticity, which protects the joint
  • Help maintain correct posture and movement
• Movement at a synovial joint


  Caused by the muscles attached across the joint
• Tendons


  Very strong, inelastic connective tissues that allow a muscle to pull on a bone to move it
• Ligaments connect bone to bone; tendons connect muscle to bone
• Types of synovial joints

  • Hinge
  • Ball and socket
  • Pivot
  • Condyloid
• Hinge joints

  • Found in the elbow, knee and ankle
  • Allow movement in only one direction
  • Allow flexion and extension of a joint
• Plantar flexion


  Toes pointed downwards
• Dorsiflexion


  Toes pointed upwards
• Ball and socket joints


  • Found at the shoulder and hip
  • Allow movement in almost every direction
  • Made up of a round end of one bone that fits into a small cup-like area of another bone
• Pivot joint


  • Found in the neck between the top two vertebrae
  • Allows only rotational movement
• Condyloid joint


  • Found at the wrist
  • Allows flexion and extension of the joint
  • Allows movement from side to side
• Flexion – bending a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint decreases. For example, the elbow flexes when performing a biceps curl.
• Extension – straightening a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint increases, for example, at the elbow when putting a shot.
• Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder joints during a jumping jack movement.
• Adduction – movement towards the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder, returning the arms and legs back to their original position from a jumping jack movement.

  Circumduction – this is where the limb moves in a circle. This occurs at the shoulder joint during an overarm tennis serve.
• Rotation – this is where the limb moves in a circular movement around a fixed joint towards or away from the midline of the body. This occurs in the hip in golf while performing a drive shot.
• Plantar flexion – pointing the toes – this movement only occurs at the ankle, for example, pointing the toes in ballet.
• Dorsiflexion – the foot moves towards the shin as if you are pulling your toes up. This movement only occurs at the ankle.
• Muscular system


  • Works in conjunction with the skeleton to produce movement of the limbs and body
• Connective tissues that help the muscular-skeletal system produce movements

  • Ligaments
  • Tendons
• Ligaments


  • Attach bone to bone
  • Act to give stability to joints
  • Tough, white and inelastic
• Tendons


  • Attach muscle to bone
  • Carry the force from muscle contraction to the bone
  • Tough, greyish and inelastic
• Producing movements


  1. Muscles contract

  2. Pull on the bones
• Joints


  • Able to move in a variety of directions
  • Allow us to perform a range of sporting movements
• Deltoid


  • Abduction of the shoulder (moving the arm outwards and away from the body)
  • Outward arm action in a jumping jack
• Pectoralis major


  • Adduction of the shoulder (moving the arm towards the body)
  • Shoulder horizontal flexion (moving the arms forwards in front of the body)
  • Upwards phase of a press up