Bio Exam

• Reproduction


  The biological process by which "offspring" are produced from their "parent" or parents
• Importance of Reproduction


  • Creation - continuous existence of living organisms
  • Improvement - improvement in genetic materials due to mixing that will lead to variation among individuals of the same species
• Asexual Reproduction


  • It does not involve gametes, instead parts of a mature organism may develop to new individuals
  • Offspring is genetically identical to the parent
• Sexual Reproduction


  • It involves the use of sex cells (gametes)
  • Involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote
  • Genetic variability
• Gametogenesis


  1. The process by which gametes, or germ cells, are produced in an organism

  2. The formation of egg cells, or ova, is technically called oogenesis

  3. The formation of sperm cells, or spermatozoa, is called spermatogenesis
• Oogenesis


  1. The process of formation of the ovum

  2. The process occurs in the ovaries of the female

  3. One oogonium produces a single ovum
• Spermatogenesis


  1. The process of the formation of haploid sperms from a diploid stem cell known as spermatogonium

  2. The process occurs inside the seminiferous tubules in the testis
• Fertilization


  1. The natural life process, which is carried out by the fusion of both male and female gametes, which results in the formation of a zygote

  2. In humans, the process of fertilization takes place in the fallopian tube
• Blastocyst


  1. Stays in their uterus for several days before it implants in the inner lining of their uterine wall (endometrium)

  2. It continues to make new cells, which separate into layers

  3. About 10 to 12 days after fertilization, the blastocyst develops into an embryo

  4. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone produced by the placenta during pregnancy

  5. It helps thicken a person's uterine lining to support a growing embryo and tells the body to stop menstruation
• Gastrulation


  1. An early developmental process in which an embryo transforms from a one-dimensional layer of epithelial cells, a blastula

  2. Then reorganizes into a multilayered and multidimensional structure called the gastrula
• Embryonic Stage


  1. Formation of four membranes that supports, protects, and nourish the embryo (yolk sac, allantois, amnion, and chorion)

  2. Development of placenta

  3. Organ formation
• Fetal Stage


  Organs differentiate further and grow
• Macronutrients


  • Nitrogen - green up plants
  • Phosphorus - reaches down to the roots
  • Potassium - promotes all around well-being
• Micronutrients


  • Materials needed by the plants in small amounts
• Transpiration


  A process in which the plant absorbs water through roots and releases water vapor through the pores in the leaves
• Root System


  Responsible for absorbing water and minerals from the soil and by the presence of root hairs it makes this absorption efficient
• Nutritional requirements of animals

  • Locomotion
  • Growth
  • Respiration
  • Circulation
  • Nervous Function
  • Development
• Nutrients from food (Biological Molecules)

  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Protein
  • Nucleic Acid
• Vitamins


  • Trace organic compounds present in the diet of animals
  • Essential vitamins in the diet of animals can either be water-soluble or fat-soluble
• Minerals


  • Important elements that animals need to obtain from their diet
  • Important minerals include phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, magnesium, and zinc
• Gas Exchange in Plants

  • Continuously supplies cells with oxygen molecules to help them oxidize carbohydrates
  • Facilitates the release of carbon dioxide molecules as byproducts of cellular respiration
  • Movement of gases depends on the relative differences in the pressures of gases
  • Involves a diversity of structures in organisms that allows for an efficient exchange of gases
• Gas Exchange in Animals

  • Animals vary in form and shape. One thing in common among these organism is the need for oxygen
  • Gas exchange by direct diffusion is only possible and efficient to organisms with: smaller size, simpler structure, and body cells that are always in contact with their external environment
• Mammalian respiratory system


  Composed of nostrils, pharynx, larynx/windpipe, trachea that divides into a pair of bronchi, the lungs and inside the lungs are the bronchioles and the alveoli
• Pulmonary ventilation (mammals)


  Takes place through the help of contraction and relaxation of a large dome-shaped muscle just beneath the lungs, diaphragm
• Inhalation


  When the diaphragm contracts (moves down), the intercostal muscles contracts (stretch out) as well, thereby causing the rib cage to move up and the chest to expand
• Exhalation


  The diaphragm relaxes (become dome-shaped), causing the intercostal muscles to relax
• Respiratory system


  • Pulmonary Ventilation - Also called breathing, this process is the mechanical movement of the air into and out of the lungs
  • External Respiration - Refers to the exchange of gases that occurs between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries
  • Transport of Gases - Involves the circulatory system, which transports gases between the lungs and tissues
  • Internal Respiration - Refers to the exchange of gases that occurs between the blood and body tissues
• Nonvascular plants


  Mosses live in damp and shady places in order to reproduce and to get enough water because they lack vascular tissues
• Root System


  Is important in anchoring and supporting the plant. It is responsible for absorbing water and minerals from the soil. The presence of its roots hairs makes this absorption efficient
• Nutritional Functions of Soil

  Water and minerals can travel via porous cell walls but then must enter endodermal cells because of the Casparian strip
• Heart


  • Cone-shaped, muscular organ about the size of a fist
  • Located behind the sternum and tilted to the left
  • Consists of four chambers, four valves, and sinoatrial node as the pacemaker
• Path of the Blood

  The pathway of the blood from the body through the human heart controlled by the different valves
• Systemic & Pulmonary


  • The systemic circuit carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs throughout the body
  • The pulmonary circuit collects oxygen-poor blood from all parts of the body to the lungs
• Nervous System


  Coordinates body functions through both electrical impulses (action potentials) and chemical messengers (neurotransmitters)

  
• Autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system


  Controls the involuntary functions of the body
• Parasympathetic


  Rest-and-digest functions
• Sympathetic


  Fight-and-flight responses