Cultural variations in attachment

• Collectivist culture

  • A culture that emphasises the importance of the group. They value interdependence. Individuals depend on each other. Groups work together sharing tasks, belongings and childcare. 
• Individualist culture

  • A culture that values independence and the importance of the individual.
• Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988)

  • Aim: 
  • To investigate the reported rates of different infant attachment types across cultures and within cultures
• • Procedure
  • A meta-analysis of over 2000 Strange Situation classifications in 8 countries
  • All of the selected studies had
  • Observed only mother-infant pairs (not fathers or other caregivers)
  • Classified infants into the 3 attachment types
• • Findings
  • Secure attachment was the most common type of attachment across all 8 nations
  • Insecure-avoidant was 2nd most common type of attachment in every country except Japan and Israel (both collectivist)
  • Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than between cultures
• Conclusion

  • The global pattern of attachment across cultures is similar to the US.
  • Secure attachment is the norm
  • Supports idea that secure attachment is ‘best’ for healthy social and emotional development
  • THESE CROSS-CULTURAL SIMILARITIES SUPPORT THE VIEW THAT ATTACHMENT IS AN INNATE AND BIOLOGICAL/EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS
• Cultural Similarities

  • Tronick et al. (1992) studied an African tribe, the Efe, from Zaire who live in extensive family groups. 
  • The infants were looked after and even breastfed by different women but usually they slept with their own mother at night.
  • Despite such differences in childrearing practices the infants, at 6 months, still showed one primary attachment figure.
• Cultural Differences in Infant Attachment

  • Grossman and Grossman (1991) found German infants insecurely attached in Strange Situation due to different childrearing practices.

  • German culture emphasizes maintaining interpersonal distance, resulting in no proximity-seeking behavior.

  • Takahashi (1990) studied 60 middle-class Japanese infants, finding similar rates of secure attachment.

  • Japanese infants showed high rates of insecure-resistant attachment (32%).

  • Japanese infants rarely experience separation from mothers, making them appear more insecurely attached.
• Conclusion of research on cultural differences in attachment

  • Despite the fact that there are cultural variations in infant care arrangements, the strongest attachments are still formed with the infant’s mother
  • However, there are differences in patterns of attachment that can related to differences in cultural attitudes and practices.
• Cultural Variations in Attachment Types - issue 

  • Bowlby's theory suggests attachment is an innate mechanism, unaffected by culture.

  • Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg found secure attachment as the most common type in every country.

  • Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg suggest cultural similarities may be due to mass media's influence on parenting.

  • Cultural similarities may not be due to innate biological influences but to global culture.
• Nation vs Culture in Cultural Variations Research - problem

  • Research on cultural variations in attachment is based on countries, not cultures.

  • Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg's conclusions were based on countries, not cultures.

  • Subcultures exist in each country.

  • Urban or rural settings can affect attachment types.

  • Cultural variations may not be comparing cultures, suggesting caution in using the term 'cultural variations'.
• Cross-Cultural Research Limitations

  • Imposed etic: Techniques designed in one culture, imposed on another.

  • The Strange Situation observation method, designed by an American, is linked to cultural assumptions.

  • The Strange Situation sees willingness to explore as a sign of secure attachment, contrasting with Japanese culture's view of dependence.

  • This could lead to misclassification of attachment types in research, affecting the validity of the study.