LU2

• Scientific Approach


  Aim is to make observations of phenomena, to improve the quality of human lives. Scientists observe nature in a systematic way and follow rules of evidence.
• Psychology as a science

  It is empirical, given that it uses direct observation as opposed to using intuition or reasoning to collect data about human behavior. Research can be human or animal.
• Four goals of psychologists as scientists

  • Describe how both humans and animals behave
  • To understand and explain the causes of these behaviors
  • To predict how both animals and humans will behave under certain circumstances
  • To control behavior through knowledge and control of its causes
• Steps in a Scientific Investigation

  1. Identify a problem

  2. The Rationale

  3. Research Question

  4. Formulate a hypothesis

  5. Research design

  6. Collect data

  7. Analyze data

  8. Research report
• Hypothesis


  A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A variable refers to characteristic that differs or varies from one situation to another, or person to another (Gender, age, ethnicity etc).
• Operational definitions


  Describe the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable
• Hypothesis is not a guess, it is an educated, testable prediction of about what will happen. One must be able to prove or disprove it.
• Qualitative research


  • Purpose is to understand and interpret social interactions. Usually, small samples, data based on open-ended responses, analysis – Patterns & themes. Provide in-depth knowledge (better understanding of people's meanings), Subjective
• Quantitative research


  • Purpose aims to test hypotheses, assess cause-and-effect relationships and make predictions. Larger samples, data based on numbers, statistical analyses. Objective
• Experimental Research Design


  • Involves experimentation. One or more variables or factors are manipulated while others are held constant. Goal is to establish cause-and-effect relationship between variables. Variables are deliberately manipulated.
• Independent variable


  A condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another
• Dependent variable


  Thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
• Extraneous Variables


  Variables that are not of interest to the researcher, but capable of influencing variables of interest (Dependent variable)
• Internal validity


  The extent to which the conclusions of an empirical investigation are true within limits of research methodology and subjects, or participants used
• Threats to Internal validity

  • Selection Bias
  • Mortality
  • Instrumentation threat
  • History threat
  • Maturation threat
  • Testing threat
• External validity


  The extent to which the results can be generalized to the larger target population or across environments
• Threats to External Validity

  • Multiple treatment effect
  • Small sample size
• Quasi-experimental Research Design


  • Refers to an experimental design where the independent variable is manipulated, but it does not provide full control of extraneous variables due to a lack of random assignment of participants to groups
• Descriptive Research Design


  • Provides a summary of the present thoughts, feeling or behavior of individuals regarding a particular phenomenon. Focus is on determining the frequency with which a particular variable occurs, or the extent to which two variables are associated or co-vary.
• Survey Design


  • Type of descriptive research that involves asking a large sample of people question (Perceptions, attitudes and behavior). Purpose is to gather information about prevalence, distribution and associations between variables within a sample of interest.
• Correlational Research Design


  • Describes the strength of the relationship between two or more variables. Purpose – to determine whether a relationship exists, and to predict future events from present knowledge.
• Observational Design


  • Involves direct observation of individuals in their natural setting. One observes as nature takes its cause and systematically collects data (no manipulation of variables). There is no intervention.
• Case Study Design


  • In-depth observation of individuals/small group. Descriptive accounts of individual's experiences & behavior. Researchers analyze collection of case studies to look for patterns. Important for investigating complex psychological phenomena, provide real-life illustrations that support a hypothesis or theory.
• Phenomenology


  • Understanding that the world and reality are not objective, but socially constructed by people. Studies people's everyday experiences, understands issues from their perspectives. Rich lived experiences.
• Primary data


  Direct collection via interviews, questionnaires and experiments
• Secondary data


  Indirect, and comprise sources such as articles, newspapers, magazines etc. Often used in meta-analysis (Comparing the outcomes of different studies)
• Standardized Test


  • Any test in which the same test is given in the same manner to all test takers, and graded in the same manner for everyone. Researchers can examine/assess problem solving abilities of participants. Assess participant's knowledge and capacity to apply the knowledge to new situations. Information is commonly measured against standards; age
• Norm-referenced


  Researchers compare participant's abilities or skills to his/her peers/group. They reveal information on personality traits, emotional states and aptitudes.
• Questionnaires


  • A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study. Meant to elicit participant's feelings, perceptions, beliefs or attitudes towards a particular issue. Relatively cheap and can be administered to group of people. Must be short, not too lengthy. No double-barrelled questions. No leading questions.
• Interviews


  • Commonly used techniques in qualitative research. Ideal for gathering information about participant's experiences and opinions. In-depth information about participants. Allows one to probe and delve into issues. More personal, one interacts directly with participants. And are time-consuming
• Categories of interviews


  • Face-to-face
  • Telephone interview
  • Focus group
• Structured interview


  Questions developed before interview, participants are asked the same question (Neutral tone to avoid influencing or prompting responses), questions are posed in the same sequence.
• Unstructured interview


  AKA conversational interviews, usually if one does not have much information about the subject matter. One seeks to explore adequate information on a topic (exploratory investigation). Questions are open-ended
• Semi-structured interviews


  Follow an interview guide, the guide enables researcher to probe new leads.
• Naturalistic Observation


  • AKA field study, involves in-depth observation of phenomena
• Laboratory Observation


  • Involves observation of phenomena in a controlled setting
• Qualitative data collection methods


  • Participants discuss their opinions, attitudes and experiences
  • Usually participants are strangers, but with similar characteristics
  • Based on semi-structured interview with the researcher
  • Duration between 1h:30 to 2 hours
  • Results are reported in terms of repeated themes and codes/quotations
• Qualitative data collection methods

  • Advantage - inexpensive
  • Disadvantage - Only trained moderator can conduct the interviews
• Three levels of interviews

  • Structured interview
  • Unstructured interview
  • Semi-structured interviews
• Structured interview


  • Questions developed before interview
  • Participants are asked the same question (Neutral tone to avoid influencing or prompting responses)
  • Questions are posed in the same sequence