Development of sport

• Feudal System.


  It was a way of structuring society around a relationship derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.
• Popular recreation.


  The sport and pastimes of people in pre-industrial Britain.
• Foot racing.


  A form of competitive running / walking in the 17th and 18th century, involving feats of endurance. As time progressed, it involved into pedestrianism / race walking.
• Patron.


  A member of the gentry who looked after a lower-class performer, by arranging competitions for them to participate in, putting up prize money and generally looking after the welfare of the performer.
• Dr William Penny Brookes.


  The founder of the Wenlock Olympian Games in 1850.
• Rational recreation.


  In the 19th century, these were sports pastimes for the lower classes which were designed by the middle classes to be well ordered, organised and controlled. During the post-industrial development of sport, it became respectable, regular, codified and had strict administration.
• Industrial revolution.


  Deemed to have occurred during the mid-18th to mid-19th centuries. This period marked a change in Britain from a feudal, rural society into an industrialised, machine-based, capitalist society, controlled by a powerful urban middle class.
• Industrial patronage.


  Factory teams were set up by factory owners as a way of decreasing absenteeism and encouraging loyalty in the workforce.
• Urbanisation.


  Large numbers of people migrating / moving from rural areas into towns and cities, seeking regular work in the factories.
• Codification.


  The gradual organisation and defining of the rules (e.g. for the actual playing of a sport, as well as the conduct and behaviour of participants).
• Philanthropists.


  Kind, generous, middle-classed individuals who had a social conscience and were keen to try to provide for a better life among the working classes.
• Public provision.


  Local council provision of facilities (e.g. sport / recreational) for the masses to participate.
• Amateur.


  A person who plays sport for the love of it and receives no financial gain.
• Professional.


  A person who plays sport for financial gain.
• Lawn Tennis


  A middle-class invention as the middle-classes aspired to be like the upper classes in society but were excluded from or could not play their version of the game.
• Open era


  When professional tennis players were allowed to compete alongside amateurs and earn money. Popularity spread worldwide due to TV rights although it is still considered middle class.

  Prizes for men and women were not the same until 2007.
• Bosman Ruling.


  A European Court of Justice decision made on 15th December 1995 concerning freedom of movement for workers. An important decision as it allowed the free movement of labour in the European Union. It effectively allowed footballers within the EU to move at the end of their contract to another club without a transfer fee being paid.
• Media.


  An organised means of communication by which large numbers of different people can be reached quickly.
• Golden triangle.


  The golden triangle refers to the relationship between business, sport and the media.
• Commercialism.


  The process of attempting to gain money from an activity e.g. sport.
• Sponsorship.


  When a company pays for their products to be publicly displayed or advertised, usually as an attempt to increase sales of their goods.
• Merchandising.


  The practice in which the brand or image from one 'product' is used to sell another, e.g. professional sports teams / performers promote various products.
• Globalisation.


  The process whereby nations are increasingly being linked together and people are becoming more interdependent via improvements in communication and travel.
• Social media.


  Online apps and websites which allow users to interact by sharing content and taking part in social networking.
• Explain the characteristics of pre-industrial mob football.

  • Played occasionally - because of limited free time; linked to seasons/religious festivals

  • Local - because of limited transport/

  communications

  • Limited organisation/few rules - because the

  lower classes in society were illiterate

  • Violent - because society was harsh/violent in nature

  • Lower-class participation - mob games were

  viewed as suitable activities for the lower

  classes

  • Rural - society was agrarian in nature with the

  population spread out in the countryside

  • Natural/simple - because people used what

  was readily available to them, e.g. open fields
• Identify the ways in which real tennis was different from popular recreation activities, e.g. mob football.

  • Courtly/exclusive/played by the upper classes

  • Complex written rules

  • Non-violent; had etiquette; respect for

  opponents

  • Played regularly

  • Played in purpose-built facilities; used

  specialist equipment

  • Non-local; upper classes could travel to play

  • Required the use of complex skills (not violence!)
• Popular recreation was often cruel, violent and male dominated. Identify other characteristics of popular recreation activities such as mob football. (3)


  • played locally

  • played occasionally/annually

  • simple rules/limited codification

  • rural

  • natural/simple
• Explain two characteristics of real tennis in eighteenth-century Britain. (4)

  • Written rules as upper class were educated/

  literate

  • Non-local as upper class could travel further

  afield

  • Played with specialist equipment in purpose

  built facilities as upper class were wealthy

  • Played regularly with high skill levels as

  evident as upper class had lots of free time to

  play/practice

  • Played by upper class males to mirror clear

  class divisions in society as reflected by the

  sporting activities played by the upper class

  and lower class
• Identify the ways in which the leisure opportunities for the working classes improved as a result of industrialisation.

  • Improved health and fitness leading to more

  energy/improved general well-being

  • Increased income/more time to play sport due to increased wages and decreased working

  hours

  • Positive influence of the new middle class

  leading to more provision/increased

  acceptability of working-class participation

  • Employer provision/industrial patronage

  leading to factory teams being formed/broken

  time payments being made

  • Improved transport/communications leading to increased travel distances/regular nationwide

  fixtures

  • Improved public provision, e.g. public parks
• Identify the positive impact of developments in transport on sporting opportunities for the working classes.

  • Development of the railways allowed transport of teams and spectators; spectator sport developed.

  • Third-class travel was relatively cheap/

  affordable for the working classes.

  • Fixtures could be played more regularly.

  • Competitions developed nationally (e.g. FA Cup; Football League).

  • Professional sport developed.

  • Improved access to the countryside was

  possible (e.g. for rambling/climbing); escape

  from urban pollution.

  • Road improvements led to developments in

  cycling clubs.
• Identify how the Church encouraged the post-industrial game of football.

  • Via giving its 'approval'

  • By providing facilities - a place to play, e.g. on church land or in church halls

  • Via establishing it as a social activity to

  increase the opportunity to play the game,

  e.g. in Sunday school teams

  • Via establishing clubs/youth sections in the Church

  which encouraged football, e.g. the Boys Brigade
• Give reasons why local authorities in the nineteenth century started to provide recreational and sporting activities for their local communities.

  • To increase the health and fitness/personal

  hygiene of the working classes

  • Via civic responsibility in times of social

  responsibility/social justice/philanthropy

  • To gain prestige for the local area

  • To increase social control/civilise society;

  temperance movement wanted to keep the

  working classes out of the pubs and away from

  alcohol; encourage middle-class values

  • To improve productivity of the workforce/raise morale of the community
• Identify the factors which led to tennis increasing women's participation in physical activity in the late nineteenth century.

  • Women could play in seclusion/privacy of their own garden, away from view.

  • Tennis became a social game which could be

  played as a mixed-sex activity.

  • It was an opportunity to be athletic/energetic, but it did not need to be vigorous - women could retain their decorum and stay 'ladylike'.

  • No special kit was initially required; women

  could dress modestly to play tennis.

  • Acceptance of exercise in fresh air as therapeutic.

  • Positive female role models emerged, e.g.

  Lottie Dodd as an early Wimbledon champion.

  • The middle classes set up tennis clubs to join.
• Discuss the impact of the industrial revolution on leisure opportunities for the working classes. (8)

  During the first half of the nineteenth century,

  the initial effects were often negative, as outlined

  below:

  • Migration of the lower classes into urban areas looking for work in the new factories being

  built led to a lack of space to play traditional

  mob games and overcrowding.

  • Lack of leisure time: the shift from 'seasonal'

  to 'machine' time led to long 12-hour working

  days, six days a week; the Sabbath (i.e. Sunday)

  was a religious observance 'day of rest'.

  • Lack of income: low wages and poverty were

  evident, with little spare income for leisure

  pursuits.

  • Poor health: along with poor working and living conditions that led to pollution, and a lack of

  hygiene, this also meant little energy to play

  sport.

  • Loss of rights: restrictions were placed on mob games and blood sports by changes in criminal laws.

  • A lack of public provision: there was no access to private facilities and personal equipment for the lower classes.

  
  

  In the second half of the nineteenth century, some improvements had a positive effect, as outlined

  below:

  • Health and hygiene improved as a result of

  gradual improvements in living conditions

  and local council provision of public baths to

  improve cleanliness and help stop the spread

  of disease, enabling more energy/willingness

  to participate in sport.

  • There was a gradual increase in wages and

  more time for sport due to the Factory Acts and

  Saturday half-days being provided to the workers

  (i.e. a gradual decrease in working hours).

  • A new middle class developed (i.e. selfmade

  men who took advantage of the new

  business opportunities available in the newly

  industrialised Britain). This changed ways of

  behaving and playing sport. It became more

  acceptable and respectable and was played

  to a high moral code; they developed strict

  rules, leagues and competitions; they provided

  facilities/public parks via their involvement in

  the local council; they gave more time off work,

  broken time payments, etc.

  • The influence of ex-public schoolboys via

  industry, the Church, etc.

  • The values of athleticism (i.e. physical

  endeavour with moral integrity, always trying

  hard and working to the best of your ability but

  taking part in the spirit of fair play) spread to

  the lower classes.

  • Industrial patronage (i.e. kind factory owners

  becoming 'patrons of sport' for the working

  class by providing support for them to

  participate in various ways) led to provision

  for recreation and sport - factory teams were

  set up, sporting facilities were provided and

  excursions to the seaside were organised.

  This decreased absenteeism and encouraged

  loyalty in the work force

  • Improvements in transport and

  communications via the development of roads

  and steam trains influenced the distances

  spectators and players could travel, and

  leagues were established. Fixtures and results

  could be published in newspapers.

  • It became cheaper to travel, so participation in sport and the spectating of sport became more

  accessible.
• Which of the following best describes a professional performer?

  a) Someone who plays sport for the love of it.

  b) Someone who receives direct payment for their participation in sporting activities.

  c) Someone who does not get paid for competing in sport.

  d) Someone who plays sport emphasising sportsmanship and fair play.

  (1)

  (b) Someone who receives direct payment for

  their participation in sporting activities
• Explain two characteristics of lawn tennis in nineteenth-century Britain. (4)

  • played regularly - players had lots of leisure

  time available

  • middle-class development - via their

  involvement in the creation of clubs/NGBs

  • highly structured/emphasis on skilled

  performance - lawn tennis was rationalised as

  an activity (e.g. via Wingfield's game)

  • use of equipment/facilities - e.g. suburban

  middle-class gardens; manufactured sets of

  equipment to buy

  • social game - both sexes could play; deemed a suitable activity for women to play
• Outline the factors which are negatively impacting on women's involvement as officials in association football.

  • physical/psychological intimidation (e.g.

  hostile attitudes from male players swearing/

  physically threatening referees)

  • lack of adherence to FA Respect protocol

  • personal factors - allegations of sexism and

  marginalisation in the predominantly 'male

  world' of football

  • organisational factors, which in reality means

  there is a lack of support/training/feedback

  on performance within the system for female

  referees

  • a lack of female role models at the elite level of football refereeing.
• Why was women's involvement in elite-level marathon running delayed until towards the end of the twentieth century?

  • Not approved by IAAF/IOC

  • No international events to access

  • Negative myths/stereotypes of the impact of

  marathon running (e.g. leads to infertility)
• Identify the characteristics of a sport which make it attractive for TV coverage.

  • National relevance/traditional part of culture/large audiences

  • High levels of skill in evidence/professional

  sport/high profile/competitive

  • Competitive/opponents potentially well matched

  • Demonstrate aggression/physical challenge/

  entertainment

  • Understandable rules/scoring systems

  • Relatively short timescale

  • Well-known performers/role models

  • Linkage to sponsorship/business/players are

  contracted
• Which factors have been responsible for the advancement in opportunities for women in sport e.g. tennis, athletics, football, since the end of the Second World War? (8)


  • Recognition of the need in society for greater equality of opportunity/equality legislation

  • Roles played by women in support of the war effort

  • Sporting/recreation/health and fitness

  opportunities - considered a right for all

  • Increase in leisure time available to participate in such sports

  • Increase in disposable income/economic

  independence

  • Increased influence of school PE programmes with wider variety of activities available

  • Increase in number of alternative activities

  available for women to participate in

  • Increase in number of sports clubs for women to join

  • Increased media coverage/positive role models to aspire to

  • Feminism/women's rights movements/work of organisations such as Sport England/Women's

  Sport Foundation etc