Biology

• Monosaccharide


  A single sugar molecule, cannot be broken down further
• Disaccharide


  A combination of two monosaccharides, can be broken down into simpler sugars
• Polysaccharide


  A long chain of many monosaccharides, cannot be broken down into simpler sugars in the human body
• Alpha Glucose


  Pyranose ring with -OH at C1 position, more stable and biologically relevant
• Beta Glucose


  Pyranose ring with -CH2OH at C1 position, less stable and typically found in disaccharides
• Ribose Structure


  Furanose ring with 5-carbon sugar molecule, significant component of RNA and DNA
• Condensation Reaction


  A reaction where two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, releasing water
• Glycosidic Bond


  A type of covalent bond between two molecules, typically involving a sugar molecule
• Polysaccharide


  A long chain of monosaccharides bonded together through glycosidic bonds
• Sucrose Formation


  α-Anomer of glucose + β-anomer of fructose → Sucrose
• Lactose Formation


  α-Anomer of glucose + β-anomer of galactose → Lactose
• Maltose Formation


  α-Anomer of glucose + β-anomer of glucose → Maltose
• Amylose


  Linear chain of glucose molecules connected by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds
• Amylopectin


  Branched chain of glucose molecules connected by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds
• Starch


  Mixed linear and branched chain of glucose molecules connected by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds
• Glycogen Core


  Linear chain of glucose molecules connected by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds
• Branching Points


  Branched structure formed by α-1,6-glycosidic bonds
• Glycogen Formation


  Core of glucose molecules with branching points formed by α-1,4 and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds
• Function of Glucose


  Primary energy source; involved in cellular metabolism; stored and transported in the body
• Function of Starch


  Energy storage in plants; food source for animals; thermal insulation; enzyme substrate
• Functions of Glycogen


  Energy storage; immediate energy source; regulates blood sugar levels; brain fuel; insulin regulation; liver function
• Structure of Cellulose


  β-1,4-glucan; crystalline structure; molecular weight variability
• Function of Cellulose


  Cell wall component; strong fiber; barrier property; participates in plant defense
• Triglyceride Synthesis


  Fatty acids; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate; enzyme-mediated condensation; glycerol-phosphate acyltransferase; final triglyceride
• Saturated Fat vs. Unsaturated Fat

  Saturated: single bond chain, linear structure, no double bonds; Unsaturated: double bonds, kinked structure, variable chain length
• Saturated Fat Characteristics


  Solid at room temperature, straight chain, no double bonds
• Unsaturated Fat Characteristics


  Liquid at room temperature, kinked structure, variable chain length, double bonds
• Lipid Function in Waterproofing

  Hydrophobic tails: water repulsion; cuticular wax and cholesterol: physical barrier
• Lipid Function in Energy Storage

  Triglycerides: energy release; fatty acids: energy source for body
• Lipid Structure


  Triglycerides: energy storage; cuticular wax and cholesterol: waterproofing; fatty acids and cholesterol; thermal insulation
• Phospholipid Function in Cell Membranes

  Bilayer formation; cellular transport; membrane fluidity
• Phospholipid Structure


  Glycerol backbone; phosphate group; head group; hydrophobic tails
• Amino Acid Structure


  Alpha carbon; amino group; carboxyl group; side chain
• Amino Acid Side Chains
• Peptide Bond Formation


  Amino acid activation; condensation reaction; peptide bond formation
• Protein Folding


  Primary structure; secondary structure; tertiary structure; quaternary structure
• Hydrogen Bonding


  Electronegative atoms; hydrogen bond formation; sickle cell anemia
• Disulfide Bonding


  Sulfhydryl groups; disulfide bond formation; protein stability
• Interactions between Functional Groups


  Charge-hydrogen bond interactions; disulfide-hydrogen bond interactions
• Ionized Functional Groups


  Carboxylate, amino, and sulfhydryl groups; ionic bonding