Learning

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)


  A stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned response, such as a loud noise.
• Unconditioned Response (UR)


  A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus, such as fear or increased heart rate.
• Neutral Stimulus (NS)


  A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response, but becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus through classical conditioning.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)


  A stimulus that originally had no meaning, but becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response.
• Pavlov's 1927 Experiment


  A study by Ivan Pavlov demonstrating classical conditioning, where dogs were fed and salivated in response to the food.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)


  Food (meat extract) presented to the dogs.
• Unconditioned Response (UR)


  Salivation, a natural response to the food.
• Neutral Stimulus (NS)


  A bell ringing, initially without a response.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)


  The bell, associated with the food through classical conditioning.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)


  A loud noise (a mean-looking rat) presented to Albert.
• Unconditioned Response (UR)


  Albert's startle response to the loud noise (flinching).
• Neutral Stimulus (NS)


  A soft, white rat, initially without a response.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)


  The white rat, associated with the loud noise through classical conditioning.
• Operant Conditioning


  A type of learning where behavior is modified by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments.
• Positive Reinforcement


  Adds a stimulus (reward) to increase the behavior.
• Negative Reinforcement


  Removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase the behavior.
• Punishment


  Adds a stimulus (penalty) to decrease the behavior.
• Extinction


  Stops a stimulus (no reward) to decrease the behavior.
• Spontaneous Recovery


  A phenomenon where a previously extinguished response or behavior reappears without deliberate practice or reinforcement.
• Skinner Box


  A device developed by B.F. Skinner to study operant conditioning and learning through rewards and punishments.
• Food Dispenser


  A mechanism that provides rewards (food pellets) to the subject for desired behaviors.
• Response Lever


  A device allowing the subject to make a response (e.g., pressing a lever).
• Punishment


  A consequence that follows an undesired behavior, aimed at reducing or eliminating the behavior.
• Extinction


  Punishment can lead to the extinction of the unwanted behavior, as the individual learns that the behavior is no longer reinforced.
• Continuous Reinforcement


  A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided every time a behavior is performed.
• Partial Reinforcement


  A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided only some of the time.
• Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement


  A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided after a fixed number of behaviors.
• Variable-Ratio Reinforcement


  A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided after a random or unpredictable number of behaviors.
• Behavior Modification


  A systematic approach to changing maladaptive or undesirable behaviors through operant conditioning principles.
• Shaping


  A technique used to teach complex behaviors by gradually building them up through a series of approximations.
• Lovaas Therapy


  A form of applied behavior analysis (ABA) therapy developed by Dr. Ivar Lovaas, focused on teaching individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities to perform complex skills.
• Fixed-Ratio Scheduling


  A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided after a fixed number of responses.
• Variable-Ratio Scheduling


  A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided after an unpredictable or random number of responses.
• Fixed-Interval Scheduling


  A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided after a fixed time interval has elapsed.
• Variable-Interval Scheduling


  A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided after a random or unpredictable time interval has elapsed.
• Intrinsic Motivation


  The motivation to engage in an activity or behavior because it is inherently enjoyable, interesting, or fulfilling.
• Social Learning Theory


  A theory that proposes that people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating the behaviors of others.
• Modeling


  The process by which an individual observes and imitates the behavior of another person, known as the model.
• Observation


  The act of noticing and recording or paying attention to an event, phenomenon, or situation.
• Imitation


  The act of copying or reproducing a behavior, attitude, or performance observed in another person or model.