Issues and Debates

• Idiographic definition


  focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature

  
  

  Doesn't seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others
• Nomothetic definition


  concerned with establishing general laws based on the study of large groups of people
• What research methods do idiographic approaches prefer and why?


  case studies, unstructured interviews

  
  

  Provide an in-depth insight into individual behaviour
• AO3 of the idiographic approach

  Weaknesses of using unscientific methods e.g. uncontrolled, hard to replicate, low generalisability

  
  

  Power of case studies e.g. KF generating further research by highlighting flaws within a whole theory
• What research methods do nomothetic approaches prefer and why?


  research methods: experiments, correlational research

  
  

  approach is scientific

  
  

  Statistical and quantitative methods to analyse data
• AO3 of nomothetic approach

  Benefits of using scientific methods e.g. quantitative methods, controlled, reliable methods

  
  

  Application of approach - biological approach using drug treatments for mental health issues e.g. OCD/depression

  
  

  Many approaches in psychology adopt both an idiographic and nomothetic approach e.g. psychodynamic and cognitive
• Idiographic examples


  Case study KF in memory - STM of auditory information better than visual, STM consists of multiple components. KF = undermined model of MSM
• Nomothetic examples


  Biological approach e.g. OCD, depression as they pinpoint a biological factor e.g. neurotransmitters that are responsible for these disorders.

  
  

  Behaviourist approach e.g. Pavlov and Skinner, experiments on animals in order to establish laws of learning (classical/operant) that is generalised to humans

  
  

  Cognitive approach e.g. MSM applied to everyone
• Nature definition


  view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors

  
  

  Locke = new born infants born as a tabula rasa (blank slate)
• Nurture definition


  behaviour is the product of environmental influences anything outside the body e.g. people, events, physical world
• Heredity definition


  process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next
• Interactionist approach to nature vs nurture

  where nature and nurture overlap and work together to shape human behaviour.
• Examples of nature


  Bowlby: children come into the world biologically programmed to attach in order to help survival
• Example of nurture


  explaining attachment through classical conditioning where infant attaches as they associate primary caregiver with pleasure e.g. food. Then attachment is maintained via operant conditioning
• Examples of the interactionist approach


  genetic disorder PKU which is expressed by recessive alleles however low protein diet for first 12 years can avoid it
• AO3 of Nature vs nurture

  Nature and nurture have become so complex; many psychologists see it as meaningless

  Plomin et al: genetic influences on parental behaviour creates a particular environment which can determine aspects of behaviour e.g. parent with gene for mental health = unsettled home, child suffers mental health due to genetics, home life or both

  
  

  Neural plasticity suggests how life experiences shape our biology

  Maguire et al - London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus size

  Blackmore and Cooper - Kittens raised in isolation seeing either vertical or horizontal stripes. When placed in world at 5 months, they couldn't see lines of opposite orientation

  
  

  Diathesis-stress model - born with a biological vulnerability such as a gene for depression but an environmental factor/stressor will trigger it

  Research suggests not everyone with the gene will develop the disorder depression
• Reductionist definition


  belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts

  
  

  Best way to look at behaviour is to break it down and use the simplest explanation to explain how it works
• Holism definition


  Human behaviour should be viewed as whole integrated experiences and not separate parts
• Biological reductionism


  biological psychologist attempt to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain using neurones, neurotransmitters etc.
• Environmental reductionism


  assume all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of stimulus-response association that complex behaviour is a series of S-R chains.
• Example of holist approach


  gestalt psychology (holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we see it as a whole rather than a collective part)

  
  

  humanistic approach = react to stimuli as a whole
• Example of the biological approach

  OCD is caused by neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin
• Example of environmental reductionism

  behavioural approach to explaining phobias - caused by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning
• Levels of explanations and examples

  Behaviour can be explained by different levels

  
  

  Biological - OCD is caused by neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin

  
  

  Psychological - OCD - obsessive thoughts

  
  

  Cultural - Odd/irrational behaviours caused by OCD
• AO3 of holism and reductionism

  Psychology as a science

  experimental reductionism: human behaviour can be studied effectively in simple experiments where complex behaviour is reduced to isolated variables

  This allows you to study different factors that influence human behaviour in a controlled manner whilst you can establish causal relationship

  
  

  Approaches tend to be based off non-human animals so it is difficult to generalise as humans live in a complex social world

  
  

  SSRI for OCD as a biological treatment. Drug therapies that can manipulate levels of hormones to help treat mental health disorders

  HOWEVER - it isn't always successful and it treats the symptoms but not the cause = chance of relapse. Not always ethical to change people's hormones/genes

  
  

  Reductionism is limited

  lead to error in understanding ignores complexity of behaviour e.g. depression. It could be inaccurate to reduce behaviour down as many factors could be involved purely biological treatment may be inadequate as holism attempts to overcome this criticism by looking at all levels of explanations

  Holistic approaches don't establish cause and effect because they don't investigate behaviour in terms of operationalised variable
• Androcentric definition


  dominated by males. In the past, most psychologists were males and the theories they produce tend to be based around a male view on the world.
• Alpha bias definition


  exaggerate the differences between males and females
• Beta bias definition


  ignored or minimised sex differences. Theories often assume that findings from males can be equally applied to females
• Gender bias definition


  the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females based on stereotypes and not real differences
• Examples of Gender bias

  Approaches: alpha bias as women are seen as inferior compared to males as Freud believed there was genuine differences between males and females. Young females were inferior to males as they suffered penis envy

  
  

  Fight or flight: beta bias as they assumed male findings on applied to females.

  
  

  Social influence: Zimbardo's study conducted only on males and assumed conformity to roles is the same for females.
• AO3 of gender bias

  Taylor et al came up with a theory to overcome the beta bias. Development of tend and befriend

  
  

  Abu Ghraib women in real life prison also were perpetrators of the abusive behaviour

  
  

  Implications of gender bias research can be problematic and show that is isn't just a methodological issue. Failing to challenge negative stereotypes Validation of discrimination

  
  

  Illustrates that there are real biological differences between genders. Therefore, we need to review our facts about gender and use this to support women. Eagly: acknowledged women may be less effective leaders than males and this should be used to aid in training etc. to create more female leaders.
• Free will definition


  idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. Individuals are free to choose their behaviours and are self determined.
• Determinism definition


  free will is an illusion, our behaviour is governed by internal and external forces over which we have no control
• Soft determinism definition


  behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make up but only to a certain extent
• Hard determinism definition


  forces outside of our control e.g. biological/past experiences shape our behaviour
• Biological determinism definition


  all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes
• Environmental determinism definition


  behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual e.g. previous experiences - learnt through classical and operant conditioning
• Psychic determinism definition


  Claims human behaviour is the result of childhood and innate drives
• Example of biological determinism


  psychopathology - OCD is partly genetic. If 1st degree relative has OCD, 5x more likely to have OCD
• Example of environmental determinism

  psychopathology - phobias acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning